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reading 3 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - contingencies are put in
        writing.classroom contract should be the result of input from both the teacher and the student. Classroom contracts have “If. . . then ”statements and are signed by the teacher and child, then dated.
    - - in negative reinforcement, the frequency of the response increases because the response removes an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus. The use of negative reinforcement has some drawbacks. Sometimes when teachers try to use this behavior strategy, children throw a tantrum, run out of the room, or destroy materials. These negative outcomes occur most often when children do not have the skills or abilities to do what the teacher asks of them.
    - - fixed proportion program, a behavior is reinforced after a specified number of responses. For example, a teacher may praise the child only after every fourth correct answer, not after every answer.
      - variable ratio program, a behavior is reinforced after an average number of times, but on an unpredictable basis.
      - fixed-interval schedule, the first appropriate response after a fixed amount of time is reinforced.
      - variable-interval schedule, a response is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed. On this schedule, the teacher might praise the child’s question-asking after three minutes have gone by, then after fifteen minutes have gone by, after seven minutes have gone by, and so on.
    - - Prompts
        
        An added stimulus or cue that is given just before a response, thus increasing the likelihood the response will recur
      - Shaping
        
        Teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations to a specified target behavior
    - - it is necessary to create an appropriate way of reinforcement for each different student and with fun activities psrs the best development
    - - It is a form of reinforcement where the child is expected to perform their corresponding activities but this struggle to obtain a reward. example: if you finish your homework you can play
- - - - is the view that behavior should be
        explained by observable experiences, not by mental processes
        
        Mental processes are defined by psychologists as the thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences but that cannot be
        observed by others.
        
        associative learning, which consists of learning that two events are connected or associated
    - - social cognitive: approaches emphasize how behavior, environment, and person (cognitive) factors interact to influence learning
      - information-processing: approaches focus on how children process information through attention, memory, thinking, and other cognitive processes
      - cognitive constructivist: approaches emphasize the child's cognitive construction of knowledge and understanding
      - social constructivist: approaches focus on collaboration with others to produce knowledge and understanding
- - - - is a method based on classical conditioning that reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with successive visualizations of increasingly anxiety-producing situations
    - - Classical conditioning helps us understand some aspects of learning better than others
    - - Extinction in classical conditioning involves the weakening of the conditioned response (CR) in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
      - Discrimination in classical conditioning occurs when the organism responds to certain stimuli but not others
      - Generalization in classical conditioning involves the tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to produce a similar response
  - - - reinforcement (reward) is a consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur.
        
        positive reinforcement, the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus, as in the example in which the teacher’s positive comments increased the student’s writing behavior
        
        negative reinforcement, the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus.
      - punishment is a consequence that decreases the probability a behavior will occur.
    - - generalization is the tendency of a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus to produce a response similar to the conditioned response.operant conditioning means giving the same response to similar stimuli. Especially of interest is the extent to which behavior generalizes from one situation to another
      - extinction occurs when a previously reinforced response
        is no longer reinforced and the response decreases
      - discrimination means responding to certain stimuli but not others. Discrimination in operant conditioning involves differentiating among stimuli or environmental events.
- - - - Attention. Before students can produce a model’s actions, they must attend to what the model is doing or saying. Attention to the model is influenced by a host of characteristics
      - Retention. To reproduce a mo's actions, students must code the information and keep it in memory and so that they retrieve it. A simple verbal description or a vivid image of what the model did assists students ’retention
      - Production. Children might attend to a model and code in memory what they have seen, yet because of limitations in their motor ability, not be able to reproduce the model’s behavior
      - Motivation. Oft en children attend to what a model says or does, retain the information in memory, and possess the motor skills to perform the action but are not motivated to perform the modeled behavior