relatively permanent infl uence on behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills that
comes about through experience.

social cognitive: approaches emphasize how behavior, environment, and person (cognitive) factors interact to influence learning

associative learning, which consists of learning that two events are connected or associated

information-processing: approaches focus on how children process information through attention, memory, thinking, and other cognitive processes

cognitive constructivist: approaches emphasize the child's cognitive construction of knowledge and understanding

social constructivist: approaches focus on collaboration with others to produce knowledge and understanding

Extinction in classical conditioning involves the weakening of the conditioned response (CR) in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

Discrimination in classical conditioning occurs when the organism responds to certain stimuli but not others

Generalization in classical conditioning involves the tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to produce a similar response

is a method based on classical conditioning that reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with successive visualizations of increasingly anxiety-producing situations

Classical conditioning helps us understand some aspects of learning better than others

punishment is a consequence that decreases the probability a behavior will occur.

positive reinforcement, the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus, as in the example in which the teacher’s positive comments increased the student’s writing behavior

negative reinforcement, the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus.

generalization is the tendency of a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus to produce a response similar to the conditioned response.operant conditioning means giving the same response to similar stimuli. Especially of interest is the extent to which behavior generalizes from one situation to another

extinction occurs when a previously reinforced response
is no longer reinforced and the response decreases

discrimination means responding to certain stimuli but not others. Discrimination in operant conditioning involves differentiating among stimuli or environmental events.

it is necessary to create an appropriate way of reinforcement for each different student and with fun activities psrs the best development

It is a form of reinforcement where the child is expected to perform their corresponding activities but this struggle to obtain a reward. example: if you finish your homework you can play

fixed proportion program, a behavior is reinforced after a specified number of responses. For example, a teacher may praise the child only after every fourth correct answer, not after every answer.

variable ratio program, a behavior is reinforced after an average number of times, but on an unpredictable basis.

fixed-interval schedule, the first appropriate response after a fixed amount of time is reinforced.

variable-interval schedule, a response is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed. On this schedule, the teacher might praise the child’s question-asking after three minutes have gone by, then after fifteen minutes have gone by, after seven minutes have gone by, and so on.

contingencies are put in
writing.classroom contract should be the result of input from both the teacher and the student. Classroom contracts have “If. . . then ”statements and are signed by the teacher and child, then dated.

An added stimulus or cue that is given just before a response, thus increasing the likelihood the response will recur

Teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations to a specified target behavior

in negative reinforcement, the frequency of the response increases because the response removes an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus. The use of negative reinforcement has some drawbacks. Sometimes when teachers try to use this behavior strategy, children throw a tantrum, run out of the room, or destroy materials. These negative outcomes occur most often when children do not have the skills or abilities to do what the teacher asks of them.

the teacher reinforces behavior that is more desired and different than what the child is doing

involves withdrawing positive reinforcement from a child’s inappropriate behavior.

is punishment only if it decreases the undesirable behavior. All too often, though, aversive stimuli are not effective punishments in that they do not decrease the unwanted behavior and indeed s ometimes increase the unwanted behavior over time.

time out, in which the student is removed from positive reinforcement

response cost, which refers to taking a positive reinforcer away from a student, as when the student loses certain privileges

Cognition influences behavior. Sondra develops cognitive strategies to think more deeply and logically about how to solve problems. Th e cognitive strate gies improve her achievement behavior

Behavior influences cognition. Sondra's de ella studying (behavior) has led her to achieve good grades, which in turn produces positive expectations about her abilities and give her self-confidence (cognition).

Environment influences behavior. The school Sondra attends recently developed a pilot study-skills program to help students learn how to take notes, manage their time, and take tests more efficiently. The study-skills program improves Sondra’s achievement behavior.

Cognition influences environment. The expectations and planning of the school’s principal and teachers made the study-skills program possible in the first place.

Environment influences cognition. The school establishes a resource center where students and parents can go to check out books and materials on improving study skills. The resource center also makes study-skills tutoring services available to students

Behavior influences environment. The study-skills program is successful in improving the achievement behavior of many students in Sondra’s class. The students' improved achievement behavior stimulates the school to expand the program so that all students in the high school participate in it.

Attention. Before students can produce a model’s actions, they must attend to what the model is doing or saying. Attention to the model is influenced by a host of characteristics

Retention. To reproduce a mo's actions, students must code the information and keep it in memory and so that they retrieve it. A simple verbal description or a vivid image of what the model did assists students ’retention

Production. Children might attend to a model and code in memory what they have seen, yet because of limitations in their motor ability, not be able to reproduce the model’s behavior

Motivation. Oft en children attend to what a model says or does, retain the information in memory, and possess the motor skills to perform the action but are not motivated to perform the modeled behavior