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Grammar (10th Oct 2021) - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Singular
        
        I, me, and mine
      - Plural
        
        we, us, and ours
    - - you, yours
      - Collapsed subject, object, singular, and plural forms
      - Non-standard plural forms
        
        you'll, you guys
      - Historical forms
        
        Plural
        
        ye and you
        
        "Ye are fantastical" and "I beseech you"
        
        Singular
        
        thou and thee
        
        Were already on the way out during Shakespeare
    - - Plural
        
        they, them, and their
        
        Borrowed from Old Norse into Old English
        
        Replaced h- pronouns
      - Singular
        
        Feminine
        
        she, her, and hers
        
        Appeared in Middle English
        
        Old English heo [hɛəʊ]
        
        Masculine
        
        he, him, and his
        
        Neuter
        
        it, its
    - - Singular generic pronoun
        
        Alternatives
        
        Use of he
        
        Use of he or she
        
        Make the sentence plural and use they
        
        Rewrite and omit the pronoun
        
        Singular they
        
        Found in Middle English, Shakespeare, and Jane Austen
        
        Prescribed against by Fisher and Murray in the 18th century
        
        Prescribed by the Washington Post's style guide (2015)
        
        Close to standard usage
      - Occurs when referring back to an antecedent of an unspecified, unknown, or irrelevant gender
      - "A person at that level should not have to keep track of the hours (...) put in"
    - - Standard
        
        I in subject
        
        My mum and I went to the store
        
        me in object
        
        "My mother called my sister and me"
      - Non-standard
        
        Subject form in object position
        
        "My mother called my sister and I"
        
        A routinised expression
        
        More polite
        
        Appears in Middle English and Shakespeare
  - - - Best used after a preposition
        
        to whom, by whom etc.
      - whom has been in decline for centuries
      - who can be substituted for the object form in informal language
      - "Whom are you calling" vs "Who are you calling"
  - - - anyone
    - - everyone, few
    - - Both plural or singular
        
        Since Old English
        
        Not one
        
        Singular
        
        Not any
        
        Plural
        
        "Some of my friends are coming to visit this weekend. But none are getting here by Friday"
        
        Prescribed by Garner
      - Prescriptively singular
        
        Murray, 1795
  - - - Also a relative pronoun
    - - Acceptable as long as the meaning is clear
      - Should answer "this what?"
        
        Garner
      - Alternatively add a noun to refer back
        
        this idea or this concept
  - - - Direct
      - Indirect
      - Object of prepositions
    - - Only possessive s
      - Historically all nouns had case distinctions
  - - - Used when referring to an animal in general
        
        "The cat that ate the canary"
      - Used on both inanimate (mostly) and animate antecedents
      - Becomes which when its preposition is fronted
        
        "She read the book that I referred to" vs "She read the book to which I referred"
    - - Used with inanimates
    - - Used with animates
      - Used with the possessive form of inanimates
        
        "I returned the computer whose hard drive is broken"
        
        Alternative to
        
        that
        
        of which
      - Used when referring to a specific animal
    - - Modifies a noun or a noun phrase
      - Come after the noun or the noun phrase
      - Introduced by a relative pronoun that stands in for the noun being modified
      - Restrictive relative clauses
        
        Relative clauses that narrow the meaning to specify who or what
        
        :!?: which vs that in restrictive relative clauses
        
        Use of that is more standard
        
        An attempt at complementary distribution
        
        Prescribed as more acceptable
        
        Fowler, 1908
        
        Strunk & White
        
        AP Style Guide
        
        Garner, 1998
        
        that can be regarded as the defining relative pronoun
        
        Use of which is acceptable and common
        
        "I have a great dress which you can borrow"
        
        Preferable when two thats may appear close to each other
        
        "We want to assign only that material which would be more helpful"
        
        which can be regarded as the non-defining relative pronoun
        
        "The dress that I just bought" or "I had lunch with a friend who just returned from China"
      - Nonrestrictive relative clauses
        
        Relative clauses that give additional information about the noun or noun phrase
        
        Often introduced by a comma in writing or a pause in speech
        
        "I bought a great dress which happened to be on sale"
      - "The man who wouldn't stop talking to me on the airplane"
      - Zero relative pronouns
        
        Relative clauses where the pronoun has been omitted
        
        Can be used to avoid whom in object position
        
        "Let me lend you the book (that) I just finished" or "I can't remember the name of the person (whom) I met last night"
        
        Occur when the relative pronoun functions as the object of a relative clause and is already fronted
        
        "I saw my friend who lives in Beijing"
      - Pied-piping
        
        Occurs when the relative pronoun functions as the object of a preposition in a relative (or nominal) clause
        
        "I'm wondering whom I should send the RSVP to" vs "I'm wondering to whom I should send the RSVP"
        
        Preposition can remain at the end or be fronted along with the pronoun
        
        Sounds more formal
- - - - Prescribed by Fowler (1926), the AP Stylebook, and the Chicago Manual of Style
      - Pronunciation of the initial H appears in the early 19th century
      - H has more commonly been pronounced than not since the 1930s
    - - Correct usage when H-dropping
        
        H-dropping is more likely when the initial syllable is unaccented
      - Still survives as high usage
  - - - all, both, etc.
      - Multipliers and fractions
        
        twice, half, etc.
      - Doesn't co-occur
    - - Articles
      - Possessives
      - Demonstratives
    - - Cardinal and ordinal numbers
      - General ordinals
        
        next, last, etc.
      - Quantifiers
      - Can co-occur
      - Order matters between multiple post determiners
  - - - my, her, their, our, etc.
    - - which, what, whatever, etc.
    - - Definite
        
        the
      - Indefinite
        
        a, an
        
        Used with countable nouns
    - - Cardinal
        
        one, two, etc.
      - Ordinal
        
        first, second, etc.
    - - this, that, these, those
    - - any, each, other, another, etc.
    - - many, some, several, most, etc.
  - - - New determiners are rarely encountered
    - - Except few taken as a determiner
    - - "I read a few good books this summer"
      - "I read a few this summer"
      - Determiners only modify nouns but don't act as nouns
- - - - New adjectives are frequently formed
    - - Occur before nouns or in the predicate
        
        "The friendly cat"
        
        "The cat is friendly"
      - Occur between determiners and the noun
        
        "All our friendly cats"
    - - very etc.