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ISSUES AND DEBATES - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Active relationship
        
        Where a child's genetic makeup has a direct affect on the environment
        
        Examples
        
        Quiet shy kid prefers to be left alone and not socialising, this can impact their cognitive and social development
        
        Musically gifted child seeks out other musical friends and they all improve and become more focused together
        
        Basically quiet kid chooses quiet lifestyle and gets quieter, outgoing kid makes more friends and gets more confident
      - Reactive relationship
        
        The child's genetic makeup leads to particular environmental responses
        
        This can be things such as physical appearance or temperament
        
        Examples
        
        Parent notices that child has musical talent and encourages pursuit of it
        
        Ugly kid gets bullied and is sad
        
        Child with anger issues upsets others and becomes socially isolated
      - Passive relationship
        
        Where parental genes affect the way they bring up the children
        
        Passing on thier genes characteristics with the environment
        
        For example- if a parent is musically gifted, they may push thier child to also play an instrument
    - - Strengths
        
        Maguire et al- Found that the area of the brain responsible for spatial memory was larger in London taxi drivers than control group. This suggests their experiences have affected their nature. Plasticity is just one of the complex reasons which means nature vs nurture dichotomy is too simple.
        
        Interactionist approach is more appropriate than nature vs nurture as that can be too deterministic
        
        Constructivism-
        
        For example naturally aggressive child takes up boxing and becomes more aggressive, makes aggressive friends. This affects environment and subsequently behavior.
        
        Theory which suggests that people create their own environment to suit their nature. (similar to active relationship)
        
        This theory reinforces that it's really difficult to disentangle the influence of nature and nurture and so interactionist is more appropriate
  - - - Genetics- the suggestion that our genetic makeup affects our behaviour
      - Evolutionary- the characteristics which supported human survival are now innate to us due to natural selection
      - The passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another.
  - - - Hard to study
        
        It is really difficult to measure the extent to which nature and nurture affect behaviour. This is because it is impossible to separate the two to see their individual impacts
        
        Even when looking at twin studies, it is impossible to say that MZ twins are identical because while they genetically are, they will not have experienced identical lives, having different peers, different classes at school and potentially even if they had the exact same life, they could have had different pre-natal environments
      - Deterministic
        
        Empiricists are environmentally deterministic and nativists are biologically deterministic. Being deterministic has many issues (see determinism evaluation)
        
        This means an interactionist approach is usually more appropriate
      - Epigenetics
        
        Epigenetics studies how different environmental influences actually have the power to change gene expressions in our DNA. Heritable changes.
        
        What is epigenetics
        
        Suggests that infants are not born as blank slates, our own and our ancestors environments can actually influence our genetic makeup
        
        An example of how the environment can affect epigenetics is the Dutch Famine of 1944-1945. Studies show that children who were born during this period have an increased rate of coronary heart disease and obesity. The illnesses occurred because mothers had exposure to famine conditions during pregnancy. Those who never experienced famine faired quite well.
        
        Our ancestors survived by gaining and storing weight to survive periodic famines. That has left our bodies to store fat and gain weight, tendencies that willpower alone can rarely overcome.
        
        Adds a thirds element to the nature vs nurture debate (generational environments)
- - - - This type reduces behaviour down to a physical level, suggests that its a consequence of biological factors such as neurons neurotransmitters genetics and hormones
      - For example depression can be reduced to the biological factor of low serotonin
    - - Suggests that all behaviour can be reduced to a simple relationship between behaviour and environment
      - Focuses on specific observable behaviour
      - For example, phobias being learnt via an association between an UCS and NS
- - - - Genetic explanations for aggression- can cause people with certain genes to be treated as a threat
      - This is important because of one misreported and invalid study on vaccines causing autism supposedly (it doesn't) but its still referenced to this day by idiots
    - - Whats socially sensitive?
      - Issues considered private stressful or sacred
      - Issues related to social conflict
      - Issues that could cause stigmatisation if publicised
  - - - Research findings can be used for purposes not intended by the researchers
      - Public policy- researchers need to consider what the research could potentially be used for and what if it is for the wrong reasons
      - Validity- If a study with poor methodology is published people interpreting the invalid results may not be aware of this and it may be used against others
    - - The research question itself can be otentially damaging (can race affect IQ)
      - Implications- The potential wider effects of the research need to be considered
      - Researchers have an obligation not to harm participants institutions or groups in society
  - - - Socially sensitive research is necessary- It would be irresponsible for researchers to avoid sensitive topic areas, sometimes by studying an underrepresented group it may promote greater understanding and sensitivity. This can help reduce discrimination and prejudice in society
      - Practical applications- Socially sensitive research such as attachment could help parents raise children better. Socially sensitive research into racial discrimination could help people treat others better. Socially sensitive research results can benefit society
    - - Current guidelines not appropriate- Current BPS guidelines cover protection from harm of participants during research, but do not control the ways that research could potentially harm those in society. At the moment, researchers do not have any guidelines about how to present their findings to others, which is important with the fast potential spread of misinformation via the internet.
      - Social control-
        
        The findings of socially sensitive research can be very influential and hard to change once out there, even when there is very little evidence for them or when there's lots of evidence against them.
        
        For example Herrnstein and Murray used psychological research to argue that it was a waste of resources to improve education for disadvantaged communities because they were genetically destined to be low achievers. This shows that socially sensitive can have a wide reach and long term consequences
      - Psychologist limitations- They can only give a perspective of behavior and can never be truly universal or absolute truth. For example, when diagnosing depression, Psychologists in Japan focus on physical symptoms whereas in the west they focus on emotional symptoms. This shows the subjectivity and variance between psychologists though they all aim to be objective
- - - - Beta bias
        
        When we assume there are no differences between genders
        
        This suggests that findings made studying males can be extrapolated to the women and vice versa
        
        This is an issue because many single gender studies can't be generalised, for example men have been found to be more aggressive so male only aggression studies won't apply to women with lower testosterone
      - Alpha bias
        
        This can either incorrectly raise status of one gender or undervalue another
        
        Example: Freud assumed differences between women and men, that women were failed men who experienced penis envy. In this case alpha bias is detrimental to women
        
        Androcentrism: Theories in psychology were male dominated and based on the study of men, they represent a male world view. This is called being androcentric
        
        When we assume there are differences between genders where there might not be
    - - Strengths
        
        Equality- If research suggests that men and women are equal in society, then there will be law reflecting this, giving increased support for women in occupational and educational settings.
        
        Reflexivity- Investigating and becoming aware of gender bias can help researchers be mindful of their own attitudes affecting an investigation. A reflexive approach includes a researcher being actively mindful of their own values and assumptions during research. This makes it less likely for overly solid or stereotypes theories to come from gender studies
      - Weaknesses
        
        Methodology- it can be hard to draw conclusions about gender in a study where gender has potentially affected the attitudes of the researcher. For example, Rosenthal carried out research which found that male and female researchers obtain different results from different genders due to different treatment. Males tend to be more friendly and encouraging to females than to men, leading to males underperforming.
        
        Some theories still not challenged- Existing examples of gender bias have not been challenged. For example Darwin's theory of sexual selection portrays males as competitive and females as choosy. Vernimmen found that females can be just as competitive as males.
        
        Disadvantaging women- Beta bias approach can ignore the important differences between women and men. This can be harmful, for example, equal parenting leave ignores the demands of breastfeeding and childbirth for women.
  - - - Approaches
        
        Etic
        
        Ignorant
        
        Culture is studied from the outside
        
        Behaviour is assumed to be universal
        
        Emic
        
        Identify and measure behaviour which is culturally specific
        
        Studied from the inside
        
        Is culturally relative
        
        Ehnography- the researcher becomes part of the culture to learn more about it and deveop a full understanding before making judgements
      - The suggestion that all cultures are worthy of respect
      - When studying another culture we need to understand how the culture functions and perceives the world. This can be achieved taking an emic approach
    - - The use of one's own cultural norms and attitudes to make judgements about other cultures.
      - Own culture is seen as normal or superior and divergence is seen as abnormal and strange
      - Example- Strange situation had a western view of attachment and found secure attachment normal and desirable, however in Germany they raise children to be independent, which would be classed as resistant according to American values
    - - Weaknesses
        
        Inter cultural differences- In the modern interconnected world where everyone travels and sares ideas and viws with one another, its not very ueful to describe a whole culture as collectivist or individualist. This is because there are likely to be just as many differences within cutures as between them.
        
        Universiality- There are some behaviours which are universal such as fight or flight, interactional synchrony. This means that behaviour is not always affected by culture and to gain a full understanding we must take universiality into account
        
        Diagnostics- If there is cultural bias in psychology this can impact mental illness diagnosis. The DSM is based on western culture, behaviours which are defined as schizophrenia symptoms such as hearing voices is a common exprience in other cultures. This means our perception is biased and epople may recieve diagnosis and treatment which they dont need
      - Strengths
        
        Emic is good- Researchers are trying to overcome cultural bias in psychology. This is a good approach as it leads to a more valid interpretation of behaviour.
- - - - hard determinism
        
        all behaviour has a specific external or internal cause which cannot be controlled
        
        believes that people are not responsible for their actions
        
        extreme view that there is no influence of free will on thoughts and behaviour
      - soft determinism
        
        less extreme, believes that humans do have some conscious control over their behaviour
        
        we have forces influencing us but are still able to push these aside when making a decision
    - - biological
        
        views behaviour as being a result of biological factors
        
        behaviour is influenced by things we do not observe and aren't conscious of such as neurotransmitters, hormones and genetics
      - environmental
        
        sees behaviours as influenced by environmental factors such as past experiences and mainly external factors such as teachers or parents
        
        we may think that free will controls our behaviour but really it is our socialisation in society
      - psychic
        
        behaviour is determined by unconscious forces
        
        early childhood experience affects the unconscious and subsequently behaviour
  - - - for
        
        a strength of being able to predict behaviour with a determinist view is that we can also learn cause and effect of negative behaviours and be able to intervene and stop them. for example if we know that certain genes cause aggression we can try to give an individual help before they need it.
        
        Mental illness is determied- We can use the existence of mental illness symptoms to back up determinism. Why would someone with free will choose to feel depressed or suicidal? The fact that medication can alleviate these symptoms suggest that they were biologically determined.
      - against
        
        socially sensitive- if we are seen as having no control over our behaviour then this contradicts the legal system and suggests that criminals aren't guilty or responsible
        
        self fulfilling prophecy, if someone is deterministically labelled then they may ignore external factors which may influence them and end up becoming what they were determined to be, restrictive attitude
        
        Concordance rates- Concordance rates are never 100%, which shows that behaviour can neither be fully determined biologically or environmentally, this means that determinism ignores the influence of other factors which have been proven to have influence
    - - for
        
        the idea of free will is backed up by the whole legal system, which assumes humans to be responsible for their own behaviour (with exceptions) and this helps maintain order in society
        
        believing in free will has psychological benefits, roberts et al 2000 found that individuals with a high (internal) locus of control tend to be more mentally healthy than those with the view that their life is predetermined and out of their control. these individuals were even more likely to become depressed, this shows that free will can be good for your mental health
      - against
        
        its culturally relative, because in individualistic cultures free will and independence is favoured, whereas in collectivist cultures, decisions will be made regarding the group and environmental determinism applies more here. therefore the idea is ethnocentric to the west
        
        Conflicting research
        
        Benjamin Libet et al- recorded activity in the motor area of the brain before the person had concious awareness of the decision to more their finger, brain decides first, not you.
        
        Chun Soon et al- found that activity can be recorded in the prefrontal cortex up to 10 seconds before an individual is aware of thier decision to act. shows that our brain can make decisions for us.
- - - - Case studies
      - Unstructured interviews
      - Thematic analysis
    - - For
        
        Can make predictions- It doesn't seek to, but it can make predictions and theories. Once a researcher has studied multiple cases they can provide a detailed qualitative generalisation which details the reasons behind human behaviour, which nomothetic does not.
        
        Can support the nomothetic approach- Idiographic and nomothetic can compliment eachother. Millon and Davis suggest that research should start with a nomothetic approach to create laws, then an idiographic approach adopted to gain more in depth insight. This is likely to lead to more accurate practical applications, for example, in drug trials where idiographic environmental and nomothetic biological factors are considered when prescribing medicine.
      - Against
        
        Hard to make practical applications- Data collected with an idiographic approach is likely to be very individual and unique and may not necessarily apply to others. This means that its hard to create practical applications as there's no baseline to compare behaviour to, a large amount of resource is used finding detailed data which my not have any real life use
        
        Scientific rigour- Lack of. Idiographic approach focuses on qualitative data which means that there is a large amount of subjectivity. This is because qualitative data collection either rely on the researcher's interpretation or on self report of participants. this means there is a large risk for bias and meaningful conclusions are hard to draw.
  - - - For
        
        Scientific method- The nomothetic approach has a clear focus on scientific methods. There is sound methodology, standardised quantitative measurements and objective statistical analysis. This high control approach allows cause and effect to be established, giving higher validity and more scientific credibility.
        
        Enables prediction- Nomothetic approach creates more generalised theories of behaviour and allows trends to be seen, this allows us to use these to predict behaviour. These predictions are most useful for treating mental illnesses as it is easier and quicker than taking an idiographic approach with every individual. General predictions allow for mass production and distribution of drug therapy.
      - Against
        
        Doesn't tell us why- It gathers a large amount of data about human behaviour, such as frequency, but it doesn't give any reasons behind this behaviour. It only focuses on averages and statistical significance. This means that it doesn't give a full picture of human behaviour.
        
        Humans are complex- Laws or generalised theories wont apply to everyone. Humans are influenced by a large range of complex factors (medication only works for about 2/3 of participants) Therefore it is sometimes more suitable to consider a combination of the two approaches as they are complimentary and more effective together.