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Lina Le Period 6 Skeletal System - Coggle Diagram
Lina Le Period 6 Skeletal System
Name of all Bones
Arms
Radius
Carpal
Wrist
Ulna
Metacarpals
Humerus
Upper arm
Phalanges
Fingers
Clavicle
Collar bone
Scapula
Shoulder
Pelvis
Coxal bone
Sacrum
Ilium
Coccyx
Tail bone
Iliac crest
Hip
Pubic bone
Sternum
Body
Costal cartilage
Manubrium
Xiphoid process
True ribs
Ribs 1 - 7
False ribs
Ribs 8 - 12
Spine
Legs
Patella
Kneecap
Tibia
Femur
Thigh
Fibula
Tarsal
Navicular
Cuboid
Talus
Cuneforms
Calcaneus
Metatarsal
Phalanges
Toes
Skull
Temporal bone
Temple
Nasal bone
Nose
Sphenoid bone
Zygomatic bone
Cheek bone
Frontal bone
Forehead
Vomer bone
Parietal Bone
Top of head
Maxilla
Upper jaw
Coronal suture
Mandible
Lower jaw
Types of Bones
Long Bones
Longer than they are wide
Limb Bones
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Femur
Fibula
Tibia
Tarsal
Metatarsal
Phalanges
Carpal
Metacarpal
Structure
Diaphysis (shaft)
Tubular shaft that forms long axis of bone
Consists of compact bone surrounding central medullary cavity that is filled with yellow marrow in adults
Epiphysis (bone ends)
Ends of long bones that consist of compact bone externally and spongy bone internally
Articular cartilage covers articular (joint) surfaces
Membranes
Periosteum : white, double-layered membrane that covers external surfaces except joints
Fibrous Layer
Outer layer consisting of dense irregular connective tissue consisting of Sharpey's fibers that secure to bone matrix
Osteogenic Layer
Inner layer abutting bone and contains primitive osteogenic stem cells that gives rise to most all bone cells
Contains many nerve fibers and blood vessels that continue on to the shaft through nutrient foramen openings
Anchoring points for tendons and ligaments
Endosteum
Delicate connective tissue membrane covering internal bone surface
Covers trabeculae of spongy bone
Lines canals that pass through compact bone
Like periosteum, contains osteogenic cells that can differentiate into other bone cells
Short Bones
Cube-shaped bones
wrist
ankles
Sesamoid bones form within tendons
patella
Vary in size and number in different individuals
Structure
Consists of thin plates of spongy bone (diploe) covered by compact bone
Compact bone is sandwiched between connective tissue membranes
Periosteum covers outside of compact bone
Endosteum covers inside portion of compact bone
Bone marrow is scathed throughout spongy bone
no defined marrow cavity
Hyaline cartilage covers area of bone that is part of a movable joint
Flat Bones
Thin
Flat
slightly curved
Bones
Sternum
Scapulae
Ribs
Most skull bones
Structure
Consists of thin plates of spongy bone (diploe) covered by compact bone
Compact bone is sandwiched between connective tissue membranes
Periosteum covers outside of compact bone
Endosteum covers inside portion of compact bone
Bone marrow is scathed throughout spongy bone
no defined marrow cavity
Hyaline cartilage covers area of bone that is part of a movable joint
Irregular Bones
Complicated shapes
Bones
Vertebrae
Hip bones
Structure
Consists of thin plates of spongy bone (diploe) covered by compact bone
Compact bone is sandwiched between connective tissue membranes
Periosteum covers outside of compact bone
Endosteum covers inside portion of compact bone
Bone marrow is scathed throughout spongy bone
no defined marrow cavity
Hyaline cartilage covers area of bone that is part of a movable joint
Anatomy of Long Bone
Structure
Diaphysis
Tubular shaft that forms long axis of bone
Consists of compact bone surrounding central medullary cavity that us filled with yellow marrow in adults
Structure
Periosteum
Compact Bone
Medullary cavity
lined by endosteum
Yellow bone marrow
Nutrient foramen
Perforating fibers
Nutrient artery
Epiphysis
Ends of long bones that consist of compact bone externally and spongy bone internally
Articular cartilage covers articular (joint) surfaces
Structure
Spongy Bone
Articular Cartilage
Compact Bone
Membranes
Periosteum: white, double-layered membrane that covers eternal surfaces except joints
Fibrous layer: outer layer consisting of dense irregular connective tissue consisting of Sharpey's fibers that secure to bone matrix
Osteogenic layer: inner layer abutting bone and contains primitive osteogenic stem cells that gives rise to most all bone cells
Contains many nerve fibers and blood vessels that continue on to the shaft through nutrient foramen openings
Anchoring points for tendons and ligaments
Endosteum
Delicate connective tissue membrane covering internal bone surface
Covers trabeculae of spongy bone
Lines canals that pass through compact bone
Like periosteum, contains osteogenic cells that can differentiate into other bone cells
The diaphysis and epiphysis is separated by the epiphyseal line
Remnant of childhood epiphyseal plate where bone growth occrs
Hematopoietic tissue in bones
Red marrow is found within trabecular cavities of spongy bone
In newborns, medullary cavities and all spongy bone contain red marrow
In adults, red marrow is located in heads of femur and humerus, but most active areas of hematopoiesis are flat bone diploe and some irregular bones
hip bone
Yellow marrow can convert to red, if a person becomes anemic
Diploe of flat bones
Sternum
Bone markings
Sites of muscle, ligament, and tendon attachment on eternal surfaces
Areas involved in joint formation or conduits for blood vessels and nerves
Types of Markings
Projection: outward bulge of bone
May be due to increased stress from muscle pull or is a modification for joints
Depression: bowl- or groove-like cut-out that can serve as passageways for vessels and nerves, or plays a role in joints
Opening: hole or canal in bone that serves as passageways for blood vessels and nerves
Bone Remodeling
Consists of both bone deposit and bone resorption
Occurs at surfaces of both periosteum and endosteum
Remodeling units: packets of adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts coordinate remodeling process
Resorption is function of osteoclasts
Dig depressions or grooves as they break down matrix
Secrete lysosomal enzymes and protons that digest matrix
Acidity converts calcium salts to soluble forms
Osteoclasts also phagocytize demineralized matrix and dead osteocytes
Bone Deposit: New bone matrix is deposited by osteoblasts
Bone Fracture Repair
During youth, most fractures result from trauma
Treatment unvolves reduction, the realignment of broken bone ends
Closed reduction: physician manipulates to correct position
Open reduction: surgical pins or wires secure ends
Immobilization of bone by cast or traction is needed for healing
Time needed for repair depends on break severity, bone broken, and age of patient
In old age, most result from weakness of bone due to bone thinning
Stages of Repair
Hematoma formation
Torn blood vessels hemorrhage, forming mass of clotted blood called a hematoma
Site is swollen, painful, and inflamed
Fibrocartilaginous callus formation
Capillaries grow into hematoma
Phagocytic cells clear debris
Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers to span break and connect broken ends
Fibroblasts, cartilage, and osteogenic cells begin reconstruction of bone
Create cartilage matrix of repair tissue
Osteoblasts form spongy bone within matrix
This mass of repair tissue is called fibrocartilaginous callus
Bony callus formation
Within one week, new trabeculae appear in fibrocartilaginous callus
Callus is converted to bony (hard) callus of spongy bone
Bony callus formation continues for about 2 months until firm union forms
Bone remodeling
Begins during bony callus formation and continues for several months
Excess material on diaphysis exterior and within medullary cavity is removed
Compact bone is laid down to reconstruct shaft walls
Final structure resembles original structure
Responds to same mechanical stressors
Joints (Movement of the synovial joints)
Also called articulations: sites where two or more bones meet
Functions of joints: give skeleton mobility and hold skeleton together
Two classifications
Structural: three types based on what material binds the joints and whether a cavity is present
Fibrous
Bones joined by dense fibrous connective tissue
No joint cavity
Most are immovable
Depends on length of connective tissue fibers
Three types of fibrous joints
Sutures
Rigid, interlocking joints of skull
Allow for growth during youth
Contain short connective tissue fibers that allow for expansion
In middle age, sutures ossify and fuse
Immovable joints join skull into one unit that protects brain
Closed, immovable sutures referred to as synostoses
Syndesmoses
Bones connected by ligaments, bands of fibrous tissue
Fiber length varies, so movement varies
Short fibers offer little to no movement
inferior tibiofibular joint
Longer fibers offer a larger amount of movement
interosseous membrane connecting radius and ulna
Gomphoses
Peg-in-socket joints
Teeth in alveolar sockets
Fibrous connection is the periodontal ligament
Holds a tooth in socket
Cartilaginous
Bones united by cartilage
Like fibrous joints, have no joint cavity
Not highly movable
Two types
Synchondroses
Bar or plate of hyaline cartilage unites bones
Almost are all synarthrotic (immovable)
Temporary epiphyseal plate joints
Become synostoses after plate closure
Cartilage of 1s rib with manubrium of sternum
Symphyses
Fibrocartilage unites in symphysis joint
Hyaline cartilage also present as articular cartilage on bony surfaces
Symphyses are strong, amphiarthrotic (slightly movable) joints
Intervertebral joints
Pubic symphysis
Synovial
Bones separated by fluid-filled joint cavity
All are diarthrotic (freely movable)
Include almost all limb joints
Characteristics of synovial joints
Six general features
Articular cartilage: consists of hyaline cartilage covering ends of bones
Prevents crushing of bone ends
Joint (synovial) cavity: small, fluid-filled potential space that is unique to synovial joints
Articular (joint) capsule: two layers thick
External fibrous layer: dense irregular connective tissue
Inner synovial membrane: loose connective tissue that makes synovial fluid
Synovial fluid: viscous, slippery filtrate of plasma and hyaluronic acid
Contains phagocytic cells to remove microbes and debris
Lubricates and nourishes articular cartilage
Nerves and blood vessels
Nerves detect pain; monitor joint position and stretch
Capillary beds supply filtrate for synovial fluid
Other features of some synovial joints
Fatty pads
For cushioning between fibrous layer of capsule and synovial membrane or bone
Articular discs(menisci)
Fibrocartilage separates articular surfaces to improve “fit” of bone ends, stabilize joint, and reduce wear and tear
Bursae and tendon sheaths associated with them
Bursae: reduce friction where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together
Bags of synovial fluid that act as lubricating “ball bearing”
ot strictly part of synovial joints, but closely associated
Tendon sheaths: elongated bursae wrapped completely around tendons subjected to friction
Stability is influenced by three factors
Extracapsular: outside the capsule
Capsular: thickened part of fibrous layer
Intracapsular: deep to capsule; covered by synovial membrane
Allow several types of movements
Classified into six different types
Plane
Hinge
Pivot
Condylar
Saddle
Ball-and-socket
Movements
Movements occur along transverse, frontal, or sagittal planes
Range of motion allowed by synovial joints
Nonaxial: slipping movements only
Uniaxial: movement in one plane
Biaxial: movement in two planes
Multiaxial: movement in or around all three planes
Muscle contraction causes insertion to move toward origin
Three general types of movements
Angular movements
Increase or decrease angle between two bones
Movement along sagittal plane
Angular movements include:
Flexion: decreases the angle of the joint
Extension: increases the angle of the joint
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Abduction: movement along frontal plane, away from the midline
Adduction: movement along frontal plane, toward the midline
Circumduction
Involves flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction of limb
Limb describes cone in space
Rotation: turning of bone around its own long axis, toward midline or away from it
Medial: rotation toward midline
Lateral: rotation away from midline
Rotation between C1and C2vertebrae
Rotation of humerus and femur
Gliding
One flat bone surface glides or slips over another similar surface
Intercarpal joints
Intertarsal joints
Between articular processes of vertebrae
All muscles attach to bone or connective tissue at no fewer than two points
Insertion: attachment to movable bone
Origin: attachment to immovable bone
Special Movements
Inversion and eversion of foot
Inversion: sole of foot faces medially
Eversion: sole of foot faces laterally
Protraction and retraction: movement in lateral plane
Protraction: mandible juts out
Retraction: mandible is pulled toward neck
Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion of foot
Dorsiflexion: bending foot toward shin
Plantar flexion: pointing toes
Elevation and depression of mandible
Elevation: lifting body part superiorly
shrugging shoulders
Depression: lowering body part
opening jaw
Supination and pronation: rotation of radius and ulna
Supination: palms face anteriorly
Radius and ulna are parallel
Pronation: palms face posteriorly
Radius rotates over ulna
Opposition: movement of thumb
touching thumb to tips of other fingers on same hand or any grasping movement
Diarthroses: freely movable joints
Functional classifications: three types based on movement joint allows
Synarthroses: immovable joints
Amphiarthroses: slightly movable joints
Diarthroses: freely movable joints
Disorders
Imbalances between bone deposit and bone resorption underlie nearly every disease that affects the human skeleton
Major bone diseases
Osteomalacia and rickets
Osteomalacia
Bones are poorly mineralized
Osteoid is produced, but calcium salts not adequately deposited
Results in soft, weak bones
Pain upon bearing weight
Rickets (osteomalacia of children)
Results in bowed legs and other bone deformities because bone ends are enlarged and abnormally long
Cause: vitamin D deficiency or insufficient dietary calcium
Osteoporosis
A group of diseases in which bone resorption exceeds deposit
Matrix remains normal, but bone mass declines
Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur most susceptible
Vertebral and hip fractures comon
Risk factors for osteoporosis
Most often aged, postmenopausal women
Affects 30% of women aged 60-70 years and 70% by age 80
Estrogen plays a role in bone density, so when levels drop at menopause, women run higher risk
Men are less prone due to protection by the effects of testosterone
Additional risk factors for osteoporosis
Insufficient exercise to stress bones
Diet poor in calcium and protein
Smoking
Genetics
Hormone-related condiions
Hyperthyroidism
Diabetes mellitus
Consumption of alcohol or certain medications
Treating osteoporosis
Traditional Treatments
Calcium
Vitamin D supplements
Weight-bearing exercise
Hormone replacement therapy
Slows bone loss but does not reverse it
Controversial because of increased risk of heart attack, stroke, and breast cancer
Other drugs for osteoporosis
Bisphosphonates: decrease osteoclast activity and number
Partially reverse osteoporosis in spine
Denosumab
Monoclonal antibody shown to reduce fractures in men with prostate cancer
Improves bone density in elderly
Preventing osteoporosis
Reduce consumption of carbonated beverages and alcohol
Leach minerals from bone, so decrease bone density
Plenty of weight-bearing exercise
Increases bone mass above normal for buffer against age-related bone loss
Plenty of calcium in diet in early adulthood
Paget's disease
Excessive and haphazard bone deposit and resorption cause bone to grow fast and develop poorly
Called Pagetic bone
Very high ratio of spongy to compact bone and reduced mineralization
Usually occurs in spine, pelvis, femur, and skull
Rarely occurs before age 40
Cause unknown: possibly viral
Treatment includes calcitonin and hisphosphonates
Differences between Male and Female skeleton
Male
Male skeleton is usually thicker, rougher and appears more bumpy
Their skeletons have strong attachment sites
The femur is thicker
Pelvic Inlet : narrower, heart-shaped
Pubic Bones : narrower sub-pubic angle where the two bones meet
Sciatic Notch: narrower
Female
Pelvic Inlet : open, circular
Sciatic Notch : broader
Hip Bones : more outwardly flared
Pubic Bones : wider sub-pubic angle where the two bones meet