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Lenses - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Existing knowledge is also known as schema
      - Learning can only happen when the individual is fully engaged.
        
        Inquiry Learning (Dewey's Philosophy
        
        Dewey's philosophy emphasizes the growth of the learner, the importance of the environment, and the role of the teacher in their students' learning.
        
        Inquiry learning came about to create citizens capable of contributing and participating in the democracy of the United States.
        
        There is an emphasis on problem-based learning
        
        When the student solves one problem, this will lead to another problem to solve, This process is also consistent with hypothesis-testing experiences.
        
        For high-quality education to happen, there must be a positive environment, problem-based learning, and social collaboration in the classroom.
        
        It is the students' job to learn, but the teacher's job to motivate
      - Learning is ongoing and natural.
        
        The three major components of learning are: internal mechanisms that are often unobservable, learning happens when individual is involved with a hypothesis-testing experience, and inferencing is a cause of learning.
  - - - Efferent responses: fact oriented and there is an understanding acquired.
      - Aesthetic response are personally subjective and emotionally based. When the student is "living through" what they are reading.
      - These responses put an emphasis on the active role of the reader and how they create meaning. This also allows the teacher to understand the student and their knowledge based on how they are comprehending a text.
  - - - Accretion is when students take in new information, but it doesn't change their schema.
      - Tuning is when existing schema is modified to incorporate new information.
      - Restructuring is when students must create a new schema because the old one is insufficient.
  - - - Syntactic cues are related to grammatical structure or syntax.
      - Semantic cues are the meanings of words and sentences that allow the reader to predict upcoming words.
      - Graphophonic cues are visual patterns of letters and words and their corresponding sounds.
  - - - Child-centered theory with some aspects of the unfoldment theory.
  - - - The theory of active management of meaning creation through a process of medication between reader, text, and context facrors.
      - Metacognition is when an individual is thinking about their own thinking.
      - Students should know when they are comprehending material based off of their own thought process.
      - Explicit instruction should be used in the classroom in order for students to use metacognition.
      - Gradual release of responsibility is also helpful for metacognition.
      - Goal of the metacognitive theory is to help assist readers to become more aware of their thinking during the reading process.
      - Is a constructivist theory because readers' are active in the learning and reading process. They independently use strategies with internal cognitive engagement.
      - Theory-to-practice: readers can use fix-up strategies such as rereading, slowing down, skipping and coming back to understand what they have read. It is important for students to use these strategies when they are not fully thinking about the text or have lost meaning while reading.
- - - - Shares ideas of "funds of knowledge" and multiliteracies
        
        Differences between the two: critical perspectives question larger structures, go beyond standardized texts, problematize social and cultural impacts.
  - - - Kimberlé Crenshaw is a major contributor to this theory
      - According to this theory, people can experience privilege and oppression at the same time for different reasons. This can lead to unique experiences.
    - - A social learning theory too. More details about this theory above under the social learning branch.
      - Critical pedagogy and critical texts analysis
      - Emphasis on how broad structures of power contribute to inequities in students' immediate or local communities
    - - Crenshaw and Ladson-Billings are both major contributors to this theory
      - Racism is an inherent feature of our institutions according to this theory
      - Another social lens theory. More information can be found above.
- - - - Mother-infant interactions effect how infants will act. There are three attachment patterns that these interactions could lead to. Secure attachment, anxious-ambivalent attachment, and anxious-avoidant attachment.
        
        Secure attachment
        
        Anxious-Ambivalent
        
        Anxious-avoidant
      - A teacher-student relationship also serves a purpose for a student's social and emotional development.
        
        For students in a classroom who are anxious, having morning meetings and other everyday activities may allow students to form more secure and positive attachments.
      - Attachment is a system of behaviors aimed at establishing and maintaining closeness and contact.
      - In the classroom, teacher-students relationships are almost as important as the mother-infant relationship at home. When the teacher allows students to feel physically and emotionally safe, grades and achievement will improve. These ideas come from The FIrst Grade Studies.
    - - Self-Determination Theory
        
        This theory discusses the importance of intrinsic motivation and what other things drive a students engagement.
      - Expectancy Value Theory
        
        Motivation within this theory comes from how successful an individual thinks they will be, how valued the task is, choices of tasks, and how persistent an individual is.
      - Social Cognitive Theory
        
        Theorizing and empirical work on the construct of self-efficacy.
        
        Self-efficacy is used to predict the performance of a task. Students are more likely to complete something where they are able to judge their own self-efficacy.
        
        Central ideas of SCT are: internal biological, cognitive, and affective factors, behavioral patterns, and environmental events.
      - Achievement Goal Theory (2019)
        
        Developmental, motivational, and educational psychologies are the bases of achievement goal theory.
        
        Grouping students by mutual knowledge goals not by their ability will lead to mastery goals being achieved. Students will also be able to see each others similarities rather than their differences.
        
        Mastery and performance are the two main reasons for individuals participation in achievement-related activities. Performance based goals in the classroom could be detrimental to students achievement.
        
        Person's orientation towards goal is what motivates them
      - Engagement Theory
        
        An engaging environment can improve motivation and grades.
        
        Engaged versus disengaged students; what happens in each situation can encourage or discourage learning.
        
        Engaged learners will think about how they learn and what they are learning about. They will also discuss their learning with others.
        
        Engagement can look different in other cultures. This is important to note in the culturally diverse classroom.
        
        Student-centered learning events will engage students.
- - - - Activity is based off of the physical experiences of an individual.
      - Social experiences are interactions an individual has with others.
      - Biological maturation is how genetic hereditary affects the individual.
      - Equilibrium is the individual's search for cognitive balance.
    - - Concrete operational period: This period starts at age seven and lasts until the child is around eleven. The child can use concrete objects as a way to think about abstract concepts.
      - Formal operational stage: This is the final stage which begins at age eleven and continues into adulthood. The child is able to use language in abstract ways.
      - Preoperational period: This stage begins at 2 years old and ends around 7 years old. There is rapid language development during this stage. The child begins to categorize words and organize their world with words. Thinking at this time is very concrete.
      - Sensorimotor stage: This stage begins at birth and lasts until around age 2. This is when the child's thinking is based on their senses. The child cannot yet use their words to describe their experiences.
      - It is important for teachers to know and understand the stage each of their students is in. Each stage needs different lessons and activities to keep students progressing.
  - - - Partial Alphabetic Stage: Also know as "phonetic cue reading," children are able to use some letter-sound cues to help identify words.
      - Full Alphabetic Stage: Practice to process all letters in a words. Readers may become too used to letter-by-letter reading which could slow down the reading process. Some individuals are also unable to use multiple strategies for word identification.
      - First stage: prealphabetic stage: children use visual cues mainly for word recognition. Children memorize words by recognizing their shapes. Students do not use letter-sound knowledge in this stage.
      - Consolidated Alphabetic Stage: Readers can use their automatic knowledge of sound-letter relationships to cluster letter patterns within words. These letter patterns are also known as phonograms or word families.
  - - - Literacy-rich home environments help create stronger accelerated skills in children. Literacy-rich homes contain large number of books and parents/guardians that frequently read and read to their children.
  - - - The design, evaluation, and implementation of different programs to facilitate the literacy development of family members.
      - The relationships between literacy use in the family and students' academic achievement.
      - The ways in which literacy is naturally used within the context of the home.
- - - - Cognitive-processing model also used to identify and treat reading disabilities
      - Stanovich used this model to define dyslexia as a type of learning disability
      - Central feature of this model is deficit in the phonological processor
    - - Parallel Distributed Processing Model
        
        First seen in 1986 and periodically updated
        
        Two central features of this model: All cognitive info is stored as a series of connections between units and these connections become stronger and faster with repeated pairing.
        
        This is a connectionist theory of reading and uses the cognitive-processing perspective
    - - This model is computer-based
      - This model has two routes for processing text input
        
        The first route is for handling words that are already known to the reader/computer
        
        Familiar words read by a dictionary look-up system called the lexical route
        
        The lexical route first identifies a word as familiar and then processes the word as a whole, providing the reader/computer with the word's correct meaning and pronunciation. This route is also known as the whole-word/sight-word approach
        
        The second route is for handling unknown words and nonwords
        
        This second route is called the nonlexical route or the sublexical route. This route is based on a letter-to-sound rule procedure. It is only used for words and string letters that are unfamiliar
      - Cascaded in this model is defined as the speed with which levels of the model within the two routes are activated during the reading process.
    - - A concept that storing information in the brain as a series of connections of differing strength
      - There are 4 primary processors central to the reading process according to connectionism.
        
        The orthographic processor- this is the print in a text. This processor also refers to inner-letter association uses strength of connections between letters to activate letters likely to follow.
        
        The meaning processor
        
        The phonological processor- this is speech and this also refers to the idea that sounds are associated to the words that are processed
        
        A benefit of the phonological processor is the capability of the running memory or the "inner voice" when an individual is reading
        
        The context processor
      - Sounds that are frequently heard together have a stronger and faster connection
      - Connectionism also expresses that successful reading is dependent on a reader's abilities in four areas: automatic letter recognition, accurate phonemic processing, strong vocabulary knowledge, and the ability to construct meaningful messages while reading
      - Connectionism is derived from the work done by Rumelhart and Stanovich. It is also consistent with LaBerge and Samuels.
      - When too much attention is used in lower-level processing, comprehension in higher-level processing will suffer
  - - - Reading disabled children fall into 1 of 3 categories according to this hypothesis: children where phonological deficits are the core of their reading disability, naming speed deficits are the core of their reading disability, or children who have phonological and speed deficits as the core of their reading disability.
  - - - This model focuses on the reading process and the series of discrete stages that make up the process.
        
        This process begins when the eye captures the input of letters, then the scanner begins, characters (letters) are registered, and the decoding process begins.
      - Renamed to "The Simple View"
        
        Reading comprehension is a result of 2 process.
        
        The first process is decoding skills
        
        The second process is language comprehension
        
        This view focuses on explaining what cannot be observed, underlying cognitive processes during the reading process
        
        There is a focus on stage-by-stage conceptual orientation to the processing storage of texts
      - This model is a "bottom-up" model which means the stages go in lower-order to higher-order
    - - This is another "bottom-up" cognitive-processing model
      - Five major components of this model are visual memory, phonological memory, episodic memory, semantic memory, and attention.
        
        Phonological memory is when information is process; sounds are attached to visual images.
        
        Episodic memory is the context that surrounds the target information that has been covered.
        
        Reading begins with visual processing and seeing the letters and words in a text.
        
        Semantic memory is where our knowledge is stored.
        
        There are two different types of attention
        
        Internal attention is unobservable and the core of this model
        
        Three components of internal attention is alertness, selectivity, and limited capacity
        
        Selectivity refers to the process that allows readers to decide what to spend time on
        
        Limited capacity is the limit of humans attention
        
        Alertness is how active and vigilant a reader is
        
        External attention which is observable
      - This model also discusses unitization which is the process when individual letters are recognized as a word
- - - - Bernstein (1972), Hart and Risley also made contributions
      - Connection between language and social class
      - Writing could be viewed as a cultural event and different cultures affect the social practices of reading and writing
      - Hart and Risley seminal study found that children's vocabulary acquisition is affected by the household in which they are raised.
      - A social learning perspective that underscores the role of language in reading acquisition and ability
      - Emphasizes that language is learned as a result of people's social learning interactions with each other
      - Education and social class differences cause varying language pattterns
    - - New London Group, 1996
      - Describes the new kinds of skills readers needed to negotiate electronic environments
      - what counts as literacy should be broadened
        
        Use of film, different colors, images/graphics, music/audio, layout
      - New times require corresponding shifts in how we think about teaching and learning. Adapting to students!
      - Similarities to the critical perspectives lens
        
        PBL and inquiry lessons which include sharing information with others
    - - Emphasizes the roles of social, cultural, and historical features within the human experience
      - More focused on culture
      - Brofenbrenner (1979) introduced 4 spheres of influence. Ecological view of human development.
        
        Microsystem: first most innermost layer, this is the child's immediate environment such as their home and classroom.
        
        Mesosystem: This is the layer of interactions, how home life affects school life
        
        Exosystem: These are what influence students even if they do not interact with them directly such as local, national, and worldwide
        
        Mactosystem: This layer is used to explain some consistencies observed at the microsystem and mesosytem levels
      - School literacy learning is a social process and the two cannot be separated
        
        Teachers should use students' differences in background knowledge as vehicles for literacy learning
      - Sources of knowledge are central to homes and communities
      - Supports collaborative learning environments such as literacy circles and book clubs
    - - Roots in law, sociology, history, ethnic studies, and women's studies
      - Characterized by 4 tenets
        
        Legitimates and promotes the voices of people of color. Does this by using story telling to integrate experiential knowledge drawn from shared history as "the other" into critiques of dominant social orders
        
        Insists on critiquing liberalism, especially the notion that meaningful social changes occur without radical change to existing social structures
        
        Names and discusses the daily realities of racism and exposes how racism continues to privilege whites and disadvantage people of color.
        
        Questions the efficacy of much of the civil rights legislation enacted in U.S., arguing that rather than reducing the effects of racism on people of color the primary beneficiaries of this legislation has been whites
      - Also shares roots with critical learning theory
      - Recognizes the disproportionate failings of nonwhite students are cause by "larger oppressive social and institutional systems"
    - - Children learn as a result of their social interactions with others. A child's development depends on their interactions with the sign system.
        
        The sign system is a culture's oral and printed language
      - Child's learning is affected the most by their mastery of language
      - Vytgosky (1978)
        
        Zone of Proximal Development
        
        Scaffolding
      - Children must learn about cultural communication systems in social situations
      - Shift from interpsychologocial to intrapsychological
      - For a child to learn, the child must see it happen socially first. Thoughts and words are shaped by the thoughts and words that come before them
      - Some ideas relating to the Constructivist lenses.
      - Paired reading is supported by social constructivism such as buddy reading or older students reading to younger students.
    - - Considers the relationships between individuals, literacy, and social transformation
      - Freire, 1970 along with Street and Gee are major contributors to Critical Literacy Theory
      - Theory is built on Foucalt's ideas. He wrote about relationships between knowledge and power
      - Seeks to explain the ways in which education and literacy shapes lives in the ways in which people can use education and literacy to reshape society
      - Illiteracy is not a personal failing, but "a historically constructed product of a society structured to produce inequality.
      - Challenges the traditional belief that education is politically neutral process designed to promote the individual development of all children
      - Emphasis on how broad structures of power contribute to inequities in students' immediate or local communities
    - - Bandura, 1986
        
        Research on how television can affect children and their behaviors. When children watched more aggressive shows, they showed aggression towards their toys.
      - Recently renamed to "social cognitive theory"
      - Combines behaviorism and social learning
      - People learn from observing someone else than they do from doing something themselves. (Models and modeling)
      - 4 stages of observational learning
        
        The reproduction phase is when the observer repeats the behaviors
        
        Retention phase in which observers think about and process what they have observed
        
        The reinforcement stage is when observers are reinforced as they repeat modeled behavior. This could be seen as complimenting students on their behavior.
        
        Attentional phase is when the learner observes
      - People with higher self-efficacy try more, accomplish more, and persist longer
      - Modeling and observational learning are also seen in emergent literacy and family literacy. This connects to developmental lenses.
      - Activities in the classroom that would build off of this theory are reading aloud, leading a morning message, and implementing a think-aloud strategy.
      - "Funds of Knowledge" using what students already know from their environments. Teachers can use their students' prior knowledge to adapt their lessons.
      - Similarities to cognitive processing models