[Land Reclamation Project]
Leveling
Traverse
Detail Survey
Earthwork
Setting out
Sustainability & Environmental Issues
Heights are based from the mean sea level
(MSL) - normally referred to as normally referred to as datum
Four Types of Telescope (level) : Dumpy, Tilting, Automatic and Digital
Leveling staff- Measures the vertical of a point relative to the
line of collimation, and be held vertically using a staff bubble
If a level is correctly setup then the line of collimation will be
truly horizontal
If the telescope is rotated about the vertical axis then a
horizontal plane is formed – called the plane of collimation
Rise & Fall Method
HPC Method
Rise/ Fall = B.S-I.S / I.S-I.S / I.S-F.S / B.S-F.S
Rise= +ve, Fall= -ve
RL'=RL+Rise / RL-Fall
Arithmetic Check:
ΣB.S-ΣF.S=ΣRise-ΣFall=Last RL-First RL
Allowable misclosure(error) = (±20 √J )mm
while J in km
Correction= ±Misclosure/No. of B.S
HPC= RL+B.S
RL'= HPC-I.S / HPC -F.S
Arithmetic Check:
ΣB.S-ΣF.S=Last RL-First RL
ΣI.S+ΣF.S+ΣRL(except 1st)= Σ(HPC*
No. of Application)
Allowable misclosure(error) = (±20 √J )mm
while J in km
Correction= ±Misclosure/No. of B.S
Systematic errors
Gross errors
Random errors
Collimation error
Defects of the staff
Reading and booking errors
Staff not vertical
Compensator unstable/not working
Parallax Error
Unstable ground
Area
Regular Boundaries
A=ab sin θ
A=(s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c))^0.5 while s=(a+b+c)/2
A=(height*base)/2
Area by Coordinates
Irregular boundaries
Graphical method
Uses grids and counting square
Mathematics
Trapezoidal Rule
A=L(O1+2ΣO(From 2 to (n-1))+On)/2
Simpson's Rule
A=L(O1+4ΣO(even no. from 2 to (n-1)) +2ΣO(odd no. from 3 to (n-1))+On)/2
Better approximation than trapezoidal rule
In case there is even number of offset, we can use Simpson's rule to calculate until the last odd offset, then continue by trapezoidal rule
Mechanical
Planimeter--It is a mechanical instrument to calculate the irregular area from a plan or map
Area by cross section
Obtained longitudinal section, with the center line at right angle, hence creating cross section
Cross section serves as input of volume calculation
Volume
Method
Spot height
by using cell
Vtotal=Σ(h) used once+2Σ(h) used twice +3Σ(h) used thrice+4Σ(h) used 4 times
Contours
Suitable for large volume
Can use both End Area or Prismoidal Method
Cross Section
End Area Method
V=L(A1+A2)/2
Vtotal=L(A1+2ΣA(from 2 to (n-1))+An)/2
Prismoidal Method
V=L(A1+4A2+A3)/3
Vtotal=L(A1+4ΣA(even no. from 2 to n) +2ΣO(odd no. from 3 to n+An)/2 , n must be odd number
For excavation, grading, transport, back filling and dumping
A=0.5*((N1E2+N2E3+...NnE1)+(E1N2+E2N3+...EnN1))
Mass Haul Diagram
Graph of cumulative volume against chainage
Haul=Volume* Distance
Average haul distance=distance from center gravity of excavation to center of gravity of tip
Free haul distance=distance stipulated in the contract, with no haul charging
Overhaul distance=Average-Free
Balancing line=a horizontal line touched Mass Haul Diagram 2 points and above
[Road Curves]
Horizontal Curve
Simple curves
Compound
Reverse
Transition Curve
to minimize the centrifugal force
Centrifugal Force, P=Wv^2/(gR)
P=0 when R=∞
P can gradually increase by passing the curve with varies radius (R decrease, P increase)
Superelevation
Raising outer part of the curve
to reduce centrifugal force
max S.E.=Bv^2/gR
B=width of road
Suitable curve is the curve with constant rate of superelevation
Ø=l^2/(2RL)
Ø=angle between (tangent of a point on curve) to (the line going to intersection point)
l=length of the point on curve to starting point
L=length of the curve
max Ø= L/2R
δ=l^2/6RL
δ=angle between (line connected starting point and point on curve) to (the line going to the intersection point)
max δ=max Ø/3
Types: Cubic parabola, Lemniscate, Spiral
DR=18000/π
R=radius
D=Degree of curvature
Chainage
The distance from starting point to certain point
L=Rθ
L=length of curvature
θ=angle
IT=R*tan(θ/2)
IT=tangent length
Factors of geometrical design
Based on JKR
Velocity
Intersection Angle
Radius
Vertical Curve
Function
Provide graduate change from 1 grade to another
Provide adequate sighting distance and safety
Normally parabola is used
Constant rate of change
If gradients are small, the characteristics of parabola:
length of parabolic curve = length of horizontal distance
The difference in height= (grade)(x')/100
Offset α x^2
Equations
y=(p-q)x^2/400l
x(hp)= 2pl/(p-q)
Factors
Sighting distance
Stopping
Overtaking
Comfort
Based on JKR
Standards
I=Intersection Point
To provide smooth change, used to deflect two straights through an angle normally called as the deflection angle or intersection angle (θ)
Circular
Circular curve
Deflection angle method
Data tabulation: Chainage, chord distance, deflection angle, total delta
deflection angle, δ=
chord length/(2*radius) Rad
The process to mark the centre line of a road
Curve length
Crest
SSD>L
L=2SSD-(200((√H1)+(√H2))^2)/(P-Q)
SSD<L
L=((P-Q)SSD^2)/(200((√H1)+(√H2))^2)
OSD<L
L=((P-Q)OSD^2)/(200((√H1)+(√H2))^2)
OSD>L
L=2OSD-(200((√H1)+(√H2))^2)/(P-Q)
Sag
SSD>L
L=2SSD-(200(H+SSD tan B))/(P-Q)
SSD<L
L=((P-Q)SSD^2)/(200(H+SSD tan B))
Rate of Curvature, K
L=K(p-q)
Horizontal forward distance measured on the curve that give rise to 1 % change in slope
In Malaysia, map coordinates are expressed as Northings (N) and Eastings (E). Negative northings (-N) and eastings (-E) denote south and west respectively
Bearings are normally measured in the range 0° to 360° from the north direction
Types of traverse: Closed (Loop/ Link) and Open
To provide control points for survey works and and reference points for setting out work
Calculation
Parameter: FL,FR, Distance
Mean=(FL+(±FR))/2
Observed angle= Mean Forward station - Mean Back Station
Forward bearing= Back bearing + Left hand angle
Back bearing forward station = Forward bearing back station ± 180°
Latitude= Distance*cos (forward bearing)
Departure= Distance*sin (forward bearing)
Northing'= Northing + Latitude
Easting' = Easting + Departure
A=0.5*((N1E2+N2E3+...NnE1)+(E1N2+E2N3+...EnN1))
Misclosure/
Correction
Maximum angular misclosure is ±2’ 30”
Σ External angles (Clockwise loop) = (2n+4)×90°
Σ Internal angles (Anticlockwise loop) = (2n–4)×90°
Angle correction = -Misclosure / No. of station
Link Traverse, Bearing misclosure = Computed forward bearing - Known forward bearing
Linear misclosure ≥ 1:4000
Correction latitude= Error Northing x length/ total length
Correction departure= Error Easting x length/ total length
Radiation by Tacheometry
Radiation by EDM/Total Station
enable both the position and reduced levels be determined simultaneously
Details are measured from a control point (station) Details Details are measured measured from a control control point (station) (station) that is closest to the area to be mapped
H= Ks cos(θ)^2 + C cos (θ)
V= 0.5Ks sin(2θ) + C sin (θ)
while θ= Vertical angle observed
K=100, C=0 in modern theodolites
RL' = RL + Hi + V - middle stadia
Tacheometry is an optical distance measurement method that is capable of providing horizontal and vertical distances at accuracies suitable for detail surveys
Details are measured either using an EDM mounted
on a theodolite or a total station
This method of picking-up details is closely linked to up details is closely linked to
computer-aided mapping
EDM is an electronic distance measurement method that is capable of providing horizontal and vertical distances at high accuracies
Advantages
(Basically on-land)
Improves sustainability of the country's urban spaces.
Encourages the development of these green spaces
Increases their biological diversity and ultimately created more livable cities.
Disadvantages
Degradation and elimination of underwater coastal ecosystems
The coastal forests and mangrove swamps have entirely vanished with only some of their flora surviving on coastal cliffs and offshore islands.
Disrupts the natural processes of most remaining ecosystems; as a result of the changing shape of the terrain itself, reclamation introduces new hills, reservoirs, lakes, and drainage patterns that alter the chemical and energy cycles present in most of the natural spaces
The toxic chemicals present in most infill substances have also polluted most of the marine ecosystems, e.g. Pulau Semakau
Influence the formation of marine erosion
LER KEE HONG A19EA0055
G30 TM1
Factors of Consideration
Estimated Cost
Initial Terrain
Estimated Time
Purpose of its design and planning
Definition
The process of creating new land from oceans, seas, riverbeds or lake beds
Method
Dry Method
Hydraulic reclamation method
Rehandling method
Hydraulic filling method
Sand spreading method
Pumping inside the bunds