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12 Principles of Multimedia Learning, A Production System Theory of…

- - - - Define the science of e-learning as including three elements:evidence, theory, and applications.
        
        The element of evidence means that there is a base of replicated findings from rigorous and appropriate research studies.
        
        The element of theory requires
        that there must be a research-based theory of how people learn in electronic learning environments, which yields testable predictions.
        
        Applications are theory-based principles for how to design electronic learning environments, which themselves can be tested in research studies
- - - - Is factual knowledge that can be reported or described, and its most basic unit is a chunk, which can be hierarchical (chunks within increasingly complicated chunks). Declarative knowledge is spread-activated, and each node has an associated strength, which becomes stronger with use.
        
        If these cognitive units are activated frequently, they can eventually become proceduralized and pass to procedural knowledge.
    - - Is dynamic and involves rules, or productions, that guide how thinking occurs. Productions are activated through pattern matching and the stronger productions have
        their conditions met more quickly.
- - - - Suggests that problems should not be given with an end-goal, because it causes the learner to have to maintain several conditions in working memory while they engage
        in problem-solving.
      - Reduces extraneous cognitive load and aids in schema
        construction.
    - - Providing learners with worked-out examples of problems
        to study can be just as or even more effective in building schemas and performance transfer than having them work out similar problems themselves.
    - - Provide a goal state and a partial solution, and then require the learners to complete the partion solution.
        
        This type of problem combines the strong points of worked examples and conventional problems,because the learner must carefully study the partially-worked ecample and the apply what they have learned to actively solving the problem.
    - - States that instruction should not be designed that causes the learner to have to divide attention between two tasks, such as searching for information to solve a problem or reading a manual while trying to practice a software application on a computer.
      - Occurs when learners are presented with multiple sources of information that have to be integrated before they can be understood.
    - - It asserts that effective working memory capacity can be increased by using auditory and visual working memory together rather than using one or the other alone.
      - The information that is directed at each channel, however, should be such that it can´t be understood in isolation, but needs to be integrated with information in the other channel in order to be fully understood.
      - Strong points of multimedia instruction, where it is easy to present information visually while also providing related or supporting information through narration, for example.
    - - Occurs when information that can be fully understood in isolation, as either visual or auditory information is presented to both channels as essentially the same information. Integrating redundant information in both working memories can actually increase cognitive load.
    - - This technique recommends variability of practice because it encourages the learner to develop schemas that aid in transfer of training to similar situations.
- - - - The visuo-spatial sketch pad is assumed to maintain and manipulate visual images.
      - The phonological loop stores and rehearses verbal information and facilitates the acquisition of language by maintaining a new word in working memory until it can be learned