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Ch. 4 Biological Beginnings - Coggle Diagram
Ch. 4 Biological Beginnings
Genetic foundations
Operations of Genes
Most genes are identical—or very similar—across children
. The remaining genes vary among children
universal and individual genes blend together in their effects
having eyes (universal) having blue eyes (individual)
both gene types start chain events in the body
effect the behavior, relationships and learning.
enviromentat aspects can affect the starting of events
exm: being exposed to lead stunts genes that would have let food motor skills and learning occur.
genes are not starting chains all the time. Only some are at work at sertin times.
Hormones reacted with cells that match to create changes.
Co-Action by Heredity and Environment
Problems in Genetic Instructions
Chromosomal Abnormality.
an extra, missing one, or a wrongly formed chromosome.
occur when chromosomes divide unevenly during meiosis
can also occur after meiosis, if the zygote’s cells divide unevenly
are triggered by parent’s exposure to
radiation
toxins
viruses
drugs
Down syndrome
the presence of an extra 21st chromosome or piece of one
delays in mental growth and are susceptible to heart defects and other health problems
Mitochondrial Errors.
Mitochondrial DNA
exists in the center and in the periphery of the cell
responsible for
breaking down fat, proteins, and carbohydrates
creating energy
maintaining organ function
cleaning up toxic substances in the body
passed on from mother
exists in nearly all cells
Because its role is so important, malformations can cause
brain seizures
developmental delays,
migraine headaches
muscle weakness
exercise intolerance
visual impairment
hearing loss
autism
diabetes mellitus
Multifactorial Problems.
Spina bifida
the spinal cord is malformed
cleft palate
a split develops in the roof of the mouth
tend to run in some families
don't typically follow simple patterns of genetic transmission.
affected children have genes that make them susceptible to particular risks
take form during pregnant
Single-Gene Defects
A child inherits an error on one gene from one or both parents
recessive defect on both chromosomes on one 22 matched pairs
error on a dominant gene on one of the 22 paired chromosomes
anomaly on a recessive gene on the single X chromosome for boys or on both X chromosomes for girls
fragile X syndrome
genetic defect on the X chromosome
severe learning disabilities, emotional problems, communication limitations, and intellectual disabilities
Epigenetic Changes
long-lasting modifications on switches that turn genes on and off
Changes to the activation of genes are generated by a wide range of circumstances
exercise
sleep
nutrition
stress
caregiving
exposure to toxins
effects can be strong and can accumulate crossed life
Stressful early childhood experiences also reveal epigenetic effects.
a child that experiences neglect or abuse can
turn off receptors in the brain and blood cells that respond to stress hormones
body stops putting a brake on anxious reactions
child remains in constant
worry
putting them at risk
co-action
direct effects
children can reach full potentchal when
they participate in progressively challenging activities
eat nutritious meals
receive affection from caregivers
act with self-control
have physical activity
and protection from toxins
we’re not born wild or shy; instead, we’re born with certain tendencies that our environments may or may not promote.
the environment enables genetic expression, providing conditions necessary for survival and a unique physical, cultural, and familial environment that together enable the child’s growth and initiative.
gene–environment interactions
when certain environments affect children selectively, based on the particular genes they have.
antisocial behavior
actions intentionally perform to hurt others and show their defiance.
Genes and environmental exposure blend together in complex processes
gene–environment alignment
passive gene–environment correlation
parents passes on genes that foster a particular talent or disposition
evocative reaction
the child develops an appearance, style of behavior, or other
characteristic that affects how other people respond to them
the child’s family and other agents in the environment offer personalized training according to the child’s genetically empowered talents and dispositions
active gene–environment correlation
the child has inherited a characteristic that
affects his or her initiative in various situations
niche construction
Children become progressively capable of altering their surroundings to achieve their needs
thought to become increasingly prevalent during middle childhood and adolescence
The Expression of Genetic Traits
Shared Human Traits
New cells know how to specialize and where to move based on the signals they receive from nearby cells
genes act in concert with developmental processes
Early in prenatal development, the rudimentary ball of cells cleaves into separate tissues for the nervous system, skin, lungs, gut, muscles, and connective tissues
Body parts become increasingly mature, with different structures taking on specialized functions
After birth, universal maturational influences are seen in critical periods
critical periods
time specific environmental exposure is necessary for normal development
Children almost always gain exposure to the stimuli they need for normal development, and when they do not, interventions are sometimes effective in activating the relevant skill.
Individual Traits
recessive gene
the weaker gene, will only present it characteristics if it's paired with another recessive gene
codominance
When two genes in an allele pair disagree, one gene doesn’t always dominate completely
dominate gene
when two alleles give different instructions and the stronger gene takes over
polygenic inheritance
when many genes add separate small effects to a complex characteristic
multifactorial trait
many genes work together with environmental factors in the manifestation of a characteristic
mitosis
duplication of cells
DNA straitens and splits down the middle, each half recreating its original structure, each pair moves to opposite ends of the cell and where it is split apart into new cells.
The Role of Genes in Forming a Child
Meioaia
The changed pairs separate, each with one of the offspring cells
the offspring cells divide again in to single-strand chromosomes
four potentially in a sperm and one in ova
pairs of duplicated chromosomes unite and exchange pieces
Crossing Over
The precursor cells duplicate their chromosomes
Precursor cells begin at puberty for boys and prenatally for girls.
Fertilization
Sperm enters the ovum
two cells intermingle each of the 23 sets of single strands chromosomes and become a single cell zygote with 23 pairs of double-strand chromosomes
monozygotic twines
1 ova and 1 sperm separates into two cell clusters
environment, experience, children’s own choices, and random factors affect development
Dizygotic twins
2 ova unite with 2 sperm cells
Acknowledging Nature and Nurture in
Children’s Lives
Celebrate the natural variation that exists in a classroom
keep an open mind about the wondrous diversity that exists
Teachers who value a multitude of physical characteristics, personality types, and talents are apt to put students at ease
Modify instruction to meet the needs of children with certain conditions
Some techniques have broad relevance to children with numerous different genetic conditions
teach to meet the specific needs in the classroom
Adjust the curriculum
universal design
compare the needs of individual learners with the demands of the curriculum and make three kinds of adjustments
1.present concepts through multiple means of representation
definitions of vocabulary
written summaries of main ideas
pictures and diagrams
audio- or video-recorded documentaries and stories
ask children to conduct an activity that demonstrates
their knowledge
writing an essay about characters in a story
a verbal explanation for patterns in a graph
giving an oral presentation on a topic
engage children with choices
giving multiple nonfiction books to pick from
meaningful connections to personal interests
assigning active roles in small group discussions
Be mindful of your own reactions to challenging characteristics
professionals must try to remain calm when interacting with oppositional children
parents adapt their caregiving styles to individual children’s temperaments
mild and good self-control= calm
irritable= prickliness
Encourage children to make growth-promoting choices
present options for cultivating students’ talents & remediating any pronounced weaknesses
students seek out experiences that allow them to exercise their natural tendencies
Notice which individuals struggle
make it important to offer extra guidance when progress in Basic intellectual, social, and emotional skills is unusually slow
children who don't receive help will fall further behind
Learn about serious genetic problems affecting children in your care
All children benefit from individualized care
those with chromosomal abnormalities, single-gene defects, and other genetic conditions can require carefully designed interventions to achieve their potential
condition alone does not reliably predict the child’s future
Customize interventions based on genetic tendencies
they recognize and work with students needs
alter guidance to accommodate these characteristics
Structure of Genes
Each gene tells the body to create one or more proteins or regulate the operations of other
genes
Protines create life-sustaining reactions that build the foundations
Genes are made up of deoxyribonucleic acid
Location on the staircase helps scientists determine
the identity of particular genes
Chromosomes are organized into 23 distinct pairs
46 chromosomes reside in the center of virtually
every cell in the body
One chromosome in each pair is inherited from the mother, the other from the father
Prenatal Development
Phases of Prenatal Growth
Development of the Zygote
fertilization
Sperm are deposited in the vagina
make their way into the uterus and Fallopian tubes
sperm enters the ovum and releases its chromosomes
Zygote
the zygote, begins its journey in the fallopian tube
fuses its two sets of chromosomes into one nucleus
30 hours after fertilization, the organism starts to grow through cell division until the zygote resembles a ball of tiny cells
Cells adhere to one another, leaving room for growth, extension outward for emerging appendages, and formation of the placenta
The zygote enters the uterus & implants in the uterine wall
Development of the Embryo
2 through 8 weeks after fertilization
The placenta becomes larger, stronger, and more elaborate as it supplies food, liquid, and oxygen; removing wastes; and secreting hormones that sustain the pregnancy.
umbilical cord forms and connects the embryo to the placenta
growth occurs from top to bottom and from inside to outside
head first, feet last
torso before limbs, arms and legs before hands and feet
Development of the Fetus
Third month
the head is large
The eyes move to their proper places
parts of the body to catch up
becomes increasingly human looking
external genitalia grow
begins to show reflexes and muscular movement
Fourth month
grows rapidly in length (height)
Weight increases slowly
Hair grows on the head and eyebrows
Eye movements occur
Fifth month
continues to increase in length
hair covers the body
greasy substance protects delicate skin.
Most mothers can feel the fetus’s movement
Sixth month
red wrinkled skin
lean but gaining
weight
1 pound 13 ounces
Fingernails are present
respiratory system and central nervous system synchronize
Eighth month
skin is pink and smooth
Fat grows under the skin
4 pounds 10 ounces
The testes (in males) descend
Seventh month
eyes open
eyelashes are present
Toenails grow
body begins to fill out
2 pounds 14 ounces
brain has developed sufficiently to support breathing
week 9 until birth
grows rapidly
refining structures that permit life outside the womb
Ninth month
7 pounds 8 ounces
finishes basic body structures
puts on weigh
dramatically increase the chances of survival.
When Adolescents Have Babies
Adolescents can have anxiety and depression
they have to face the attention of peers and educators
risk of droping out of school.
encourage them to continue education
Tile IX gives rights to pregnant adolescent to attend regular courses, extracurricular activates and be protected from harassment
Supporting Parents, Protecting Babies
Urge pregnant women to seek medical care
Sensitize prospective mothers to the growth within
The Developmental Trends table “Phases of Prenatal Growth” provides a synopsis of the key progressions.
Remind sexually active students to take care of themselves
young women who might be pregnant should watch their diet and restrict their exposure to teratogens
Young men can be advised that they, too, put future children at risk by exposing themselves to teratogens prior to the pregnancy
Ask pregnant women how they are doing
Ask fathers to talk about their experiences
Urge pregnant women to stay clear of teratogens
Use well-researched strategies when reaching out to young women
effective strategies include toll-free hotline numbers, radio spots, posters in visible locations, and materials in the language spoken by expectant mothers
Encourage women to evaluate their health before becoming pregnant
Advise new parents about how to care for offspring exposed to teratogens
. Special educational services are an integral part of academic and social learning for numerous teratogen exposed children. In the case of substance-abusing mothers, treatment is generally a necessary first step to becoming a responsible parent
Advise pregnant women about nutritional requirements and relevant programs
WIC
Help pregnant adolescent girls address the multiple challenges in their lives
Medical Care
Preparing for Pregnancy
Prospective mothers
caring for herself before becoming pregnant
take approved vitamin supplements
exercise moderately
avoid alcohol and drugs
watch her diet
Doctors
review her prescriptions and over-the-counter medicines
address existing health problems that can become complicated during a pregnancy
concerns related to the woman’s age
Genetic counselor
examines the couple’s, siblings, parents, and other biological relatives medical records
Diagnostic tests
Prospective fathers
avoided toxic substances
mercury
lead
alcohol
cigarettes
Avoiding Harmful Substances
teratogens
harmful chemicals
prescription and nonprescription drugs; alcohol; infectious agents and dangerous environmental chemicals
The genetic makeup of both mother and baby moderates the effects of teratogens
list of teratogens
Nicotine
small, lightweight babies and miscarriage
Cocaine
miscarriage, premature births, low birth weight, small head size, lethargy, and irritability.
Alcohol
fetal alcohol syndrome
Methamphetamines
born early, small, and light and have risks for problems in respiration, hearing, seeing, and learning.
mercury
abnormal brains, intellectual disabilities,
attention problems, and motor disabilities.
Rubella (German or three-day measles)
cataracts, heart problems, and deafness
Herpes simplex
miscarriage, premature birth, infants with physical problems
HIV infection and AIDS
passing on the condition to their children, delays in motor skills, language, and cognitive development and ultimately develop more serious health impairments
zygote
exposure to teratogens can cause the death of the zygote, yet more often, a few cells will die or become damaged, which will be replaced with healthy cells
embryo
The principal parts of the body, including the limbs and the internal organs, teratogens can cause major problems
fetus
less susceptible to serious structural damage
the brain is susceptible to damage late in pregnancy and infancy.
Implementing Medical Procedures
ultrasound examination
estimates of the age of the fetus, detect multiple fetuses, and reveal major abnormalities
Chorionic villus sampling
detects chromosomal abnormalities
Amniocentesis
analyzed for high concentrations of a fetal protein present with neural tube defects and other anatomical problems.
mother blood test
can identify chromosomal and genetic defects in the fetus
fetoscope
examine the fetus for defective limbs or other
deformities.
abortion is some times used when offspring has serious defect or parents seek practical tips and emotional support
Birth of the Baby
Preparation for Birth
Stages of a typical birth
first
After numerous contractions the cervix opens completely, the baby’s head moves down the vagina
begging contractions spaced 15 to 30 min apart
Contractions become stronger and longer
last 30 to 60 sec
occur every 2 to 3 minutes
the mother’s cervix dilates
When the cervix dilates to 3 centimeters, an “active” phase begins and lasts until full dilation
12-16 hr for 1st timers
6-8 hr after 1st baby
second
the baby moving down the vagina
the baby’s head appearing
Medical personnel may rotate the baby’s head so it can get around the pelvic bones
checks that the umbilical cord isn't wrapped around the head
nose and mouth are cleansed of fluids
gradually the rest of the body emerging
half an hour, but in first pregnancies it often lasts up to 2 hours
after blood has drained from the umbilical cord into the baby, the cord is clamped and cut
stage continues with pushing with each contraction
appear every other minute and last for a minute at a time
must push hard to help move the baby down and out
third
the delivery of the placenta and fetal membranes
Usually, happens without assistance
mother is checked to see if lacerations have occurred
fourth
body begins to readjust after the exertion
Braxton Hicks contractions. exercise the mother’s uterine muscles without causing the cervix to open
The mother may experience the descent of the baby into the pelvis, feel a rush of energy, lose 1 to 4 pounds as her hormonal balance changes, and notice vaginal secretions. Sleep becomes difficult.
Contractions widen the cervix opening and mark the beginning of childbirth
Medical Interventions
Babies at Risk
Babies born early
premature infant
born before the end of 37 weeks after conception
infection, presence of two or more babies, abnormalities in the fetus, death of the fetus, abnormalities in the womb, and serious disease in the mother
face serious risk factors, including higher than-usual rates of death during infancy
breathing problems, anemia, brain hemorrhages,
feeding problems, and temperature instability.
Babies born small for date
small and light given the amount of time they have had to develop in the uterus
at risk for neurological deficiencies, structural problems in body parts, breathing difficulties, vision limitations, and other serious health problems
Developmental Care for Babies at Risk
reduce exposure to light and noise
regulate the amount of handling
position to increase circulation
encourage parent participation in care
Inform about infant's needs
arrange daily routine for minimal interruptions
parents cuddle often
skin-to-skin contact
medical interventions
induced labore
started artificially with medications
women past their due dates
those with diabetes
pregnancy-induced hypertension
pain manigment
medicine
analgesics
medicines that reduce pain without loss of consciousness
anesthetics
cause loss of sensation and can lead to loss of consciousness
opioids
reduces the sensation of pain by changing the way it is perceived by the brain
have several disadvantages
limited effectiveness in reducing pain
nausea
drowsiness
non medicine
water baths
imgages of the cervix opening
music
hypnosis
biofeedback
massage
cesarean surgery
baby is removed through an incision made in the mother’s abdomen and uterine wall.
30% of babies born in the United States
performed when the safety of the mother, child, or both is at stake.
Enhancing Parents’ Sensitivity to Newborn Infants
Encourage families to watch infants’ responses to stimuli
Share what you know about infants’ sensory and perceptual abilities
Reassure new mothers that they will be able to find the energy to care for their babies
Point out the physiological states of newborn infants
Show parents how to care for the baby
Offer early and continued support to parents of fragile infants
Model sensitive interactions with infants
Discuss the kinds of stimulation infants might find soothing
