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Human Bio U3 and U4 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Efferent
        
        Somatic: carrying messages to skeletal muscles
        
        uses Acetylcholine as Neurotransmitter
        
        Function is to respond to external enviroment
        
        voluntary
        
        always excites the target organ
        
        Autonomic: carries messages to heart and Involuntary muscles
        
        Parasympathetic
        
        Rest and Digest
        
        Sympathetic
        
        Fight or Flight
        
        uses acetylcholine or Noradrenaline as Neutrotransmitter
        
        function is adjustment of internal enviroment;Homestasis
        
        Involuntary
        
        Can Excite OR Inhibit
      - Afferent
        
        Somatic Sensory
        
        Visceral sensory
    - - The brain and spinal cord
- - - - Hormones
        
        Oxytocin
        
        (dopamine)
        
        Antidiuretic Hormone(ADH)
      - Releasing/inhibiting hormones
        
        Cortisol releasing hormone(CRH)
        
        Gonadotropin-releasing hormone(GnRH)
        
        prolactin releasing/inhibiting hormones(PRH/PIH)
        
        Growth hormone release/inhibiting hormone(GHRH/GHIH)
        
        Thyrotropin-releasing hormone(TRH)
    - - Posterior
        
        Antidiuretic Hormone(ADH)
        
        Oxytocin
      - Anterior
        
        Growth hormone
        
        Prolactin
        
        Thyroid Stimulating Hormone(TSH)
        
        Luteinizing Hormone(LH)
        
        Follicle Stimulating Hormone(FSH)
    - - Thymosin
    - - Parathyroid
        
        Parathyroid Hormone(PTH)
      - Triidothyonime
      - Thyroxine
    - - Glucagon
        
        Raises blood sugar levels
      - Insulin
        
        Lowers blood sugar levels
    - - Melatonin
    - - Testes
        
        Testosterone
      - Ovaries
        
        Oestrogen
        
        Progesterone
    - - Cortex
        
        Aldosterone
        
        to regulate salt and water in the body, thus having an effect on blood pressure.
        
        too much of this hormone can cause you to lose potassium and retain sodium.
        
        Cortisol
        
        Andorgens
      - Medulla
        
        Adrenaline/epinephrine
        
        Noradrenaline/norepinephrine
- - - - Homo
        
        Sapien
        
        brain size
        
        1200 to 1700 CC
        
        geographic location
        
        everywhere
        
        height
        
        1.6 to 1.85 cm
        
        physique
        
        skull shape
        
        small to no brow ridge
        
        shorter and higher skull
        
        no to little prognathism
        
        has a pointed chin
        
        occipital bun
        
        teeth and jaws
        
        parabolic dental arcade
        
        smaller molar
        
        shorter jaws
        
        culture
        
        tools
        
        time they were around
        
        160 000 to present
        
        Diagram
        
        Neanderthalensis
        
        time they were around
        
        brain size
        
        geographic location
        
        height
        
        physique
        
        skull shape
        
        teeth and jaws
        
        culture
        
        tools
        
        Diagram
        
        Erectus
        
        time they were around
        
        brain size
        
        geographic location
        
        height
        
        physique
        
        skull shape
        
        teeth and jaws
        
        culture
        
        tools
        
        Diagram
        
        Habillis
        
        time they were around
        
        brain size
        
        geographic location
        
        height
        
        physique
        
        skull shape
        
        teeth and jaws
        
        culture
        
        tools
        
        Diagram
      - Robustus
        
        time they were around
        
        brain size
        
        geographic location
        
        height
        
        physique
        
        skull shape
        
        teeth and jaws
        
        culture
        
        tools
        
        Diagram
      - Australopithacus
        
        Africanus
        
        brain size
        
        geographic location
        
        height
        
        physique
        
        skull shape
        
        teeth and jaws
        
        culture
        
        tools
        
        time they were around
        
        Diagram
        
        $Australopithecus Afracanus Skull$
        
        Afarensis
        
        time they were around
        
        brain size
        
        geographic location
        
        height
        
        physique
        
        skull shape
        
        teeth and jaws
        
        culture
        
        tools
        
        Diagram
  - - - Description
        
        Types
        
        Aurignacian
        
        blade tools(axe and cutting)
        
        began 40 000 years ago
        
        Magdaleian
        
        bone and antler(sowing and hooks)
        
        17 000 to 12 000 years ago
        
        Solutrean
        
        22 000 to 17 000 years ago
        
        willow leaf and laurel leaf points(spearhead)
        
        Uses a variety of materials to make tools - stone bone, and antler. Produced tools to make tools = Burin
        Blades produced from a core stone then reworked via pressure flaking
        more precise methods of manufacture - finer detail and smaller tools
      - Used by
        
        Homo Sapiens
      - Materials
        
        Stone, Bone, Antler
      - Used for
        
        tools for specific uses - barbs, fish hooks, needles, spear points
    - - Used by
        
        Homo Habillis
      - Description
        
        Pebble tools - cores with flakes removed on some sides. Between the size of a tennis ball to a marble
      - Materials
        
        Hammer stone struck on the edge of core of quartz, basalt or obsidian to produce stone flakes
      - Used for
        
        Choppers and scrapers for butchering animal bones. Used in scavenging to cleave meat from bones
      - Dated at
        
        started 2.5 million years ago
    - - Used by
        
        Homo Neanderthalensis
      - Description
        
        working of cores before flakes removed and reworked made by striking flakes from a flint core in alternating direction.
        Used cores were later used as choppers
        flakers were trimmed and used as scrapers or knives
        
        tools used included:
        
        small hand axe made from disk shaped cores
        
        flake tools - side scrapers and triangular points
        
        toothed instruments produced by making notches in a flake, perhaps used as sawa or shaft straighteners
        
        hand axes and hafting attaching wooden handles
      - Used for
        
        flake tools used for cutting, scraping, piercing, and gouging tools,
        used for hunting
      - Materials
        
        rocks, wood
      - Dated at
        
        160 000 to 40 000 years ago
    - - Used by
        
        Homo Erectus
      - Description
        
        Cores tone is flaked on both edges to produce a bifacial hand axe.
        Pear/teardrop shaped or rounded in outline
        Usually 12 to 20 cm long
        Use of cores and flakes
        Pressure flaking- a short pointed instrument of bone, antler or wood used to pry, not strike off tiny flakes
      - Materials
        
        rocks
      - Used for
        
        killing animals, cutting meat, skinning animals, producing fire, digging upn plants
      - Dated at
        
        1.5 million years ago and 200 000 years ago
  - - - muscle tone
- - - - Too cold
        
        Receptor: Thermoreceptors in skin detect change in temp, hypothalamus, internal organs
        
        Modulator: hypothalamus
        
        Message: nervous response via sympathetic NS
        
        Effector: 1. skeletal muscles 2. blood capillaries 3. sweat glands
        
        Response:
        
        2. vasoconstriction (prevent heat loss)
        
        3. reduce sweat production (decrease heat loss)
        
        4. behavioural (jumper)
        
        shivering (increase heat production
        
        Feedback: increase in body temp
        
        Stimulus: Decrease in body temp (too cold)
      - Too Hot
        
        Stimulus: increase in body temp (too hot)
        
        Receptor: Thermoreceptors in skin, hypothalamus, internal organs
        
        Modulator: hypothalamus
        
        Message: nervous response via sympathetic NS
        
        Effector: 1. Skeletal muscles, 2. blood capillaries, 3. sweat glands
        
        Response:
        
        2. vasodilation (increase heat loss)
        
        3. sweating (increase heat loss)
        
        behavioural- remove clothing, pool
        
        Feedback: decrease in body temp
    - - Too cold
        
        Stimulus: Decrease in body temp (too cold)
        
        Receptor: Thermoreceptors in skin, hypothalamus, internal organs
        
        Modulator: hypothalamus secrete TSH releasing factor
        
        Message: hormonal: anterior pituitary releases TSH
        
        Effector: thyroid releases thyroxine
        
        Response: increase metabolic rate (increase heat production)
        
        Feedback: increase in body temp
      - Too hot
        
        Stimulus: increase in body temp (too hot)
        
        Receptor: Thermoreceptors in skin, hypothalamus, internal organs
        
        Modulator: hypothalamus secrete TSH releasing factors
        
        Message: hormonal: anterior pituitary releases less TSH
        
        Effector: thyroid releases less thyroxine
        
        Response: decrease metabolic rate (decrease heat production)
        
        Feedback: decrease in body temp
    - - Radiation
        
        heat transfer from one object to another without physical contact
        
        e.g. heat from sun
        
        When too hot: body radiates heat into surrounding area
        
        When to cold: body absorbs heat from surroundings
      - Conduction
        
        heat transfer between substances that are in direct contact with each other
        
        e.g. touching hot object, swimming in pool
      - Evaporation
        
        when water changes from liquid to gas, heat energy is lost
        
        e.g. sweating
      - Convection
        
        heat transfers from hot place to cold places in liquid or gas via movement of particles
        
        e.g. cycling a bike
- - - - internal
        
        specific
        
        Cell mediated immunity
        
        works againts transplanted tissues and organs, cancer cells, and cells that have been infected by viruses or bacteria, also provide resistance to fungi and parasites
        
        works by
        
        antigen presenting cells recognise, engulf and digest pathogens, display antigen on surface
        
        antigen presenting cells reach lymphoid tissue and present antigen to lymphocyte
        
        helper t cells are stimulated by antigen presenting cells, which relsease cytokines'
        
        specific T lymphoctes are stimulated to undergo rapid cell division
        
        most new t cells develop into killer t cells or helper t cells which migrate to site of infection
        
        Killer t cells destroy the antigen, while helper t cells promote phagocytosis by macrophages
        
        some sensitied T cells form memory cells
        
        Antibody/hormonal mediated immunity
        
        works by
        
        Antigen presenting cells recognise, engulf and digest pathogens, displaying antigen on their surface
        
        antigen presenting cells reach lymphoid tissue and present antigen to lymphocyte
        
        helper t cells are stimulated by antigen presenting cells, which relsease cytokines'
        
        specific B lymphocytes are stimulated to undergo rapid cell division
        
        most new B cells develop into plasma cells which produce antibodies and release them into blood and lymph
        
        antibodies combine with the specific antigen and inactivate or destroy it
        
        some of the new B cells form memory cells
        
        works against bacteria, toxins and viruses before they enter the body's cells; also works against red blood cells of a different blood group than that person.
        
        non specific
        
        inflammatory response
        
        is the inflammation of certain organs or tissues. it is localised and non specific to what it attacks.
        
        M physical/chemical damage causes mast cells to be activated by compliment proteins, releases histamine, heparin and others into blood
        
        H histamine increases blood flow via vasodilation increases heat, redness, swelling
        
        H heparin prevents clotting, clots form around damaged area
        
        P compliment proteins chemicals released attract phagocytes and phagocytosis occurs
        
        P abnormal conditions in tissue, pain receptors activate pain begins
        
        P phagocytes filled with debris, die and form pus
        
        M new cells produced by mitosis, repair of tissues begins
      - external
        
        fever
        
        how it works
        
        1 due to infection, the bodys termostat becomes set as an abnormally high level
        
        2 the body feels cold and responds by shivvering and vasoconstriction
        
        3 body temp rises
        
        4 the fever breaks, with sweating and vasodilation in the skin
        
        5 body temperature returns to normal and sweating occurs
        
        due to a resetting of the thermostat by the hypothalamus to higher than normal. the body then adjusts and heats up to meet that new figure, but then overheats above the normal temp
        
        this then results in the body thinking that its cold and shivering and warming up. vasoconstriction of the skin occurs
        
        When the fever breaks, or when the hypothalamus lowers its thermostat, vasodilation and profuse sweating takes places
        
        the fever is beneficial to a point. it inhibits the growth of some bacteria and viruses, and kills others. It also increases the rate of chemical reactions. allows chamicals called interneurons to operate more quickly.
        
        1 more item...
        
        barriers
        
        skin
        
        mucus
        
        hairs
        
        cilliaa
        
        acids
        
        lysozyme
        
        cerumen
        
        movement of fluid
        
        reflexes
        
        sneezing
        
        coughing
        
        vomiting
        
        diarrhoa
    - - inability
        
        social
        
        ethics
        
        made from
        
        made in a lab
        
        or sourced from animals(insulin)
        
        can violate religeuos
        
        could be grown or sourced from a allergen for a person, like eggs or other animals
        
        human tissue cultured
        
        testing on animals
        
        avaliability
        
        cultural
        
        religeous beliefs
        
        how its made
        
        the reason why it is being administered
        
        what it contains
        
        against having skin broken/use of technology
        
        economic
        
        cost
        
        commercialisation
        
        health
        
        allergic
        
        immunocompromised
        
        preservatives that lead to other helath concerns
      - types
        
        Immunity
        
        passive
        
        antibodies made from someone else/the induviduals body plays no part in production
        
        natural
        
        mother ot foetus during developmet or breastfeeding
        
        artificial
        
        antibodies injected into bloodstream directly
        
        active
        
        body is exposed to foreign antigen and produces own antobodies in response to that anitgen
        
        natural
        
        ability comes from a direct attack of a disease
        
        artifical
        
        ability comes from being given disease via vaccination
        
        vaccines
        
        Sub - unit
        
        Toxoid
        
        inactivated
        
        live attenuated
      - schedule
        
        babies will recive vaccines at brith, and more in the next year. otehrwise provied by mother via breatfeeding
        
        about a month to a year or so between to allow the body to see it and fight it, so with the next time it is admisnistered the body can recohgnise it and get a stronger immune response
      - population
        
        herd immunity
      - pros/cons
        
        pros
        
        cons
    - - immune response
        
        antibodies
        
        antigen presenting cells
        
        antigens
  - - - how they work
        
        antibiotics bind to toxins neutralising thema
        
        attach to pathogen membranes causing pathogens to clump/agglutinate
        
        puncture pathogen membrane causing pathogen to lyse
        
        stimulate phagocytes
        
        macrophages
        
        neutrophils
        
        dissolve bacteria
        
        change soluble toxins to insoluble substances causing their precipitation
      - what they are/about
        
        chemicals/small molecules used to treat infections
        
        used to treat infections mainly by bacteria
        
        no memory cells or lasting effect
        
        taken after become infected
        
        tablets, capsules droplets and ointments
        
        only work for a limited time while infected by a pathogen
    - - dead/inactivated organisms or compounds used to provide immunity to particular diseases.
      - used to treat infections mainly by infections
      - residual affect due to memory cells
      - preventative/before infection occurs
      - taken orally or injected
      - taken once - long lasting
  - - - spread by physical contact
      - can be direct(person to person) or inderect, on a surface beforehand
    - - food or drink contaminated.
      - dystentry, typoid fever and salmonella
    - - blood or other body fluid comes into contact with the musous or internal body fluid or an uninfected person
      - can be via a break in the skin,
        
        Mucous membranes in the nose, mouth, throat, or genitals
      - HIV, Hep B or C
    - - when tiny droplets containing the virus are emitted when breathing, talking, sneezing, coughing,
        
        then breathed in or settle on food and ingested
      - Covid 19, mumps, colds and influenza
    - - Moisture in inhaled droplets evaporates, many bacteria are killed, cause infection when inhaled. the lighter they are the further they travel
    - - spread by animals such as ticks, insects or mites.
      - some spread by direct, or via food or water
      - (maleria(mosquitos) or lyme(ticks))
  - - - that early childhood exposure to particular microorganisms protects against allergic diseases by contributing to the development of the immune system. In particular, a lack of exposure is thought to lead to defects in the establishment of immune tolerance
    - - a greater incidence of allergic reactions in children appears to correlate with improved hygiene in developed countries. Children in developed countries are protected from exposure to many antigens present in the natural environment.
- - - - population
        
        Mediterranean
        
        Italy
        
        Greece
        
        Turkey
        
        North Africa
        
        Middle/south east Asia
      - cause
        
        less haemoglobin
        
        Fewer Red blood cells
      - symptoms
        
        anaemia
        
        fatigue
        
        weakness
        
        pale skin
        
        facial bone deformity
        
        slow growth
        
        abnormal swelling
        
        dark urine
      - inherited via
        
        1 to 4 mutated gene
        
        recessive Autosomal
      - advantageous
        
        resistance to Maleria
      - types
        
        alpha
        
        beta
    - - Population
        
        Eastern European Jews/Ashkenazis
      - Symptoms'
        
        Deafness/progressive blindness
        
        decreased muscle strength/muscular stiffness
        
        slow growth
        
        red spot on eye
      - Cause
        
        missing enzyme
        
        accumulation of fatty substances in nervous system
      - inherited via
        
        Recissive Autosomal
      - types
        
        infantile
        
        juvenile
        
        chronic
      - advantageous
        
        can dissapear
        
        resistance to tuberculosis
    - - Symptoms
        
        Anaemia
        
        body cant get enough Oxugen - fatugue
        
        Pain - Blocked veins
      - Advantageous
        
        protections against Maleria
      - Inherited Via
        
        Recessive Autosomal
      - Cause
        
        red blood cells crescent shaped
        
        not enough healthy red blood cells
      - Population
        
        Black Africans
  - - - selection pressures
    - - steps
      - problems
      - what is it?
        
        the tradiationla method for improving crops and livestock, such as increasing disease resis
      - examples
        
        corn
        
        more kernals in a kernal?
        
        carrots
        
        colour
        
        cows
        
        more milk
        
        chicken
        
        grows faster
    - - Genetic drift
      - Migration
      - Founder effect
        
        the reduction of genetic variation that results when a small subset of a larger population is used to establish a new colony. they do not represent the originla oclony gene pool.
        
        non directional, evolutionary force. by chance
        
        affects small and isolated populations
        
        indicated because the predominant phenotypes does not appear to be related to the environment.
      - Speciation
        
        the process
        
        variation- variation exist within the population, and they share a common gene pool/genes flow freely
        
        Isolation - populations of the same species are isolated. without gene flow = separate gene flow
        
        Selection - different selection pressures cause a change in gene frequency, leads to the evolution of a subspecies
        
        Speciation - over many generations, the differences accumulate, eventually they become different species and cannot produce fertile offspring with the offspring
        
        species - a group of individuals that share many characteristics and are able to interbreed
        
        speciation' - the process of a new species forming
      - similarities and differences
    - - Geographical
      - Sociatal
  - - - There is variation within a population. No two orgainisms are the same
    - - The enviroment imposes a delection pressure. It favours a particular characteristic
    - - Those organisms who possess the favourble characteristic are more likely to survive
    - - Those organisms that survive will reproduce and pass on their favourable characteristics to their offspring's
    - - Resulting offspring now possess the favourable characteristics and there is a greater number of individuals possessing the characteristics within the population
    - - those with unfavourbale chare=acteristics will die, removing their genes from the gene pool
- - - - carbon 14 dating
        
        requirements
        
        alkaline soils
        
        hard parts such as bone, teeth, shell
        
        absence of decay organisms
        
        fast buriel
        
        remain undisturbed
        
        used for
        
        anything organic
        
        advantages and limitations
        
        Remains must have carbon
        
        Ratio of c12 to c14 is not constant over time - atomic explosions
        
        Remains less than 70000
        
        Have a minimum amount of 3grams
        
        how it works
        
        Plants absorb C14 during photosynthesis
        
        C14 passed to animals via food chain
        
        Measure c14 in dead animal
        
        Measure c12 and nc14 ratio
        
        Half-life of 5730
        
        Amounts of c14 left indicates amount of half-life's that have passed
        
        Number of half life's multiplied by 5730 to give age
      - potassium argon dating
        
        how it works
        
        used for
        
        rrequirements
    - - dendrochronology/tree ring dating
      - stratigraphy
      - fluorine dating
    - - conditions not met for fossilisation
      - moved
      - destroyed
      - have not been found
      - too deep
  - - - DNA
        
        How
        
        DNA is composed of nitrogen bases coding for all proteins. all organism use the same DNA code
        
        what it is
        
        The more DNA sequences they have in common, the more closely related they are/more differences means more distantly related
      - Mitochondrial DNA
        
        how
        
        inherited only from the mother and has a high mutation rate
        
        what is it
        
        smilar/identical Mt DNA means they are more closely related
      - Endogenous Non-functional DNA(viral)
        
        how
        
        organism with ERV in the same location indicate a common ancestor
        
        more ERVs in common more closely related
        
        what is it
        
        ERV are viruses that inerts DNA into gametes and can be passed down.
      - Protein Sequence
        
        how
        
        similar proteins with the same/similar functions indicate a common ancestor
        
        what is it
        
        proteins are comprised of only 20 amino acids, in a specific order to carry out a specific function
      - Comparative Genomes
        
        how
        
        level of relatedness can be determined. more genes in common, more closely related indicates a common ancestor
        
        what is it
        
        the comparison of the genomes of different species, identifying regions of similarity of difference.
    - - embryology
        
        what it is
        
        comparison of embryos of different species
        
        how
        
        all vertebrates develop similarly and therefore all have a common ancestor
        
        resemblances in early development suggest common ancestry/divergent pathways
      - Homologous structures
        
        what is it
        
        organs that are similar in appearance, but provide different functions
        
        how
        
        suggest organism evolved from a common ancestor, but adapted to different enviroments
        
        more similar traits suggest a closer ancestor
      - Vestigial organs
        
        how
        
        remains of organs that were once functional but due to natural selection they are no, longer needed and have suince been reduced/eliminated.
        
        similar structures indicate a common ancestor
        
        what it is
        
        structures of reduced size and appear to have no function