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Topic 1 (Introduction), Topic 2 (Synapse), Topic 11 (Learning and Memory),…

- - - - Agonist
      - Antagonist
- - - - Reinforcers : ↑ response probability
      - Punishment: ↓ response probability
  - - - change may indicate learning
- - - - likely due to prefrontal cortex changes
- - - - Radial mazes
      - Morris water maze task
    - - Delayed non-matching-to-sample tasks
      - Delayed matching-to-sample tasks
- - - - glutamate excitation depolarizes the membrane
- - - - Hippocampal commissure
      - Anterior commissure
- - - - severe language impairment due to brain damage
      - comprehension deficits
  - - - impaired ability name objects
      - impaired language comprehension
      - anomia
      - Poor language comprehension
      - can still have fluent speech, just has difficulty
- - - - visual stimulus is preceded
        and followed by longer interfering stimul
      - Backward masking: when just the later
        stimulus is presented
  - - - prefrotnal cotex and parietal cotex
- - - - eg.age
  - - - Depression, irritability, and impaired job
        performance (caused by non-sunlight zeitgeber)
      - sunlight, tides, exercise, meals,arousal of any kind, temperature of environment
    - - mismatch of the internal
        circadian clock and external time
- - - - decrease in body temp
      - Decrease in muscle activity
  - - - brain may discard useless connections
      - Learned motor skills may be consolidated
    - - REM is to help with oxygenation to corneas
  - - - brain replays its daily
        experiences during sleep?
- - - - mammals constant body temp of 37 C
        
        helps with muscle activity, and breaking down of proteins and Reproductive cells
  - - - attack intruders but also stimulate the vagus nerve
      - which also released small proteins cytokines
      - vagus nerve stimulates the
        hypothalamus to initiate a fever
      - fever leads to increased activity of immune system
      - fevers > 41˚ C, can be life threating
- - - - Excreting concentrated urine
      - Decreasing sweat and other autonomic responses
      - drinking more water
    - - raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels
      - enables the kidneys to reabsorb water and excrete highly concentrated urine
  - - - human body must maintain concentration of solutes at a fixed level
      - Solutes inside and outside a cell produce osmotic pressure
        
        Occurs when solutes are more
        concentrated on one side of the membrane
      - brain detects osmotic pressure from
        
        Receptors around the third ventricle
        
        OVLT
        
        Receptors in the periphery
        
        relay information to areas of the hypothalamus
        
        Supraoptic nucleus
        
        Paraventricular nucleus
      - drinked water must be absorbed by digestive system
- - - - absorbs digested food into the bloodstream
      - duodenum: initial absorption of
        significant amounts of nutrients occurs
      - cholecystokinin (CCK) to regulate hunger
        
        closes sphincter muscle between the
        stomach and duodenum, to prevent any more food intake
    - - produces lubricant for food to pass
- - - - important source of energy
      - most food enters as glucose into blood stream
      - when high
        
        liver cells
        convert some of the excess into glycogen
        
        fat cells convert it into fat
      - when low
        
        liver converts glycogen back
        into glucose
    - - pancreatic hormone, enabling glusoce to enter
      - rise before and after a meal
      - to prepare for rush of glucose, lets existing glucose in the
        blood to enter the cells
      - high levels=decrease appetite
    - - released by the pancreas when glucose levels fall
      - stimulates the liver to convert some
        of its stored glycogen to glucose
  - - - monitoring of fat supplies
      - fat cells produce the peptide
        leptin
      - low levels of leptin increase hunger
      - high levels increase physical and immune system activity
      - sensitive to leptin/inability to produce = obesity
    - - overeating damages the endoplasmic reticulum in neurons of the hypothalamus
      - decreased leptin sensitivityPhysical exercise
      - Physical exercise helps repair endoplasmic reticulum
- - - - receive input from: taste pathways , Axons releasing ghrelin
    - - Distention of the intestine triggers neurons to release CCK
    - - affects lateral hypothalamus
        
        orexin
        
        contributes to feeding by:
        
        sending messages
        to make food taste better
        
        Arousing the cerebral cortex to facilitate ingestion, swallowing, and responsiveness to taste etc...
        
        increase insulin secretion
- - - - Sexual selection and preference
        
        favorting younger, for better repdoctive systems
        
        Multiple mates; may increase resources or just wider gene pool
        
        no actual genetic basis
      - Gender differences in sexual behavior
- - - - precursors to the female’s organs
    - - precursors to other
        male reproductive organs
- - - - occur mostly at sensitive stages before birth
      - determines if brain and body develope to femal/male
    - - any time at life
      - temporarily activate a particular
        response
    - - long lasting affects
      - Sexual differentiation depends on testosterone level
      - period for genital formation is about the third and fourth month of pregnancy
      - Alpha-fetoprotein binds to estrogen prevents it from entering developing cells
    - - does not determin if a person phsycial looks or male
      - ...with estrogen
        
        modify the development of the brain and the internal sexual organs
    - - sexually dimorphic nucleus
        
        Larger in males, contribute to sexual behaviour)
      - female hypothalamus generate a
        cyclical pattern of hormone release
  - - - Clitoris grows larger than normal
      - Sexual behavior becomes masculinized
- - - - stimulates D2 receptors and lead to orgasm
  - - - synthesized by the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary gland
- - - - further elases LH
      - preparing for fertilized ovum
    - - maximum fertility
      - high estrogen levels
        when ovulation occurs
- - - - estrogen and progesterone prevents the surge of FSH and LH
      - thickens the mucus of the cervix; preventing sperm from entering
- - - - kin selection
      - activation or
        inactivation of genes
- - - - weak autonomic/skeletal response = less emotions
      - ↑ response = ↑emotion
    - - Pure autonomic failure
      - Paralyzed people report same degree of emotion to
        prior to injury
- - - - quick responses
      - moral decisions
        
        prefrontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, and amygdala
        
        may take emotional considerations
      - damage impairs leading to impulsive decision making
      - damage leads to failure to anticipate
        unpleasantness of an outcome
- - - - ↑ testosterone levels ↑ aggression
      - increases repsonse of amygdala
      - decreases function of cerebral cortex
      - hinders to identify and regulate emotions
    - - ↑ levels = ↑ aggression
      - 5-HIAA used to infer turnover rate
      - high levels to 5-HIAA lead to increases serotonin
      - low serotonin turnover increases violent behaviour, suicide
      - can be influenced by genetics
- - - - interferes with learning fear responses
      - Interpreting or understanding stimuli
      - impairs processing of emotional information
      - recognizd cognitive but not feeling aspect
      - Urbach-Wiethe disease
- - - - alter amygdala synapses activity
      - Ethyl alcohol (GABA)
      - Benzodiazepines (GABA)
    - - extinction of fear
      - may return
- - - - dominated with prolonged stress
      - Hypothalamus → pituitary gland→ ACTH→adrenal cortex→cortisol
  - - - deteriorates memory
      - damaged by toxins
      - impairs the production of new neurons
  - - - Lower levels of cortisol
      - struggles with stress
      - smaller than average hippocampus
- - - - most abundant in the periphery of
        the eye and respond to faint light
    - - most abundant in and around
        the fovea
      - –Essential for color vision & more
        useful in bright light
- - - - each side of the medulla
      - contains reticular formation and raphe system
      - increase arousal and readiness
    - - located in the hindbrain withmany deep folds
      - regulate motor movement, balance,
        and coordination
      - shifting between auditory and visual stimuli
    - - above the spinal cord
      - vital reflexes
      - Cranial nerves
  - - - Hippocampus ilocated between the thalamus and cerebral cortex
        
        memory,
        particularly new events
  - - - Pituitary gland
    - - caudate nucleus, the putamen, and the globus pallidus
      - motor movement, aspects of memory and emotional expression
      - cognitive functionn
  - - - Reservoir of hormones and nutrition
- - - - heart, intestines, and other organs
      - regulate the automaticbehaviors of the body
      - The sympathetic nervous system
        
        prepares the organs for rigorous activity
        
        network of nerves
        
        norepinephrine
      - parasympathetic nervous system
        
        vegetative, nonemergency response
        
        long preganglionic axons
        
        acetylcholine
  - - - Communicates with the sense organs and muscles
      - grey and white matter
- - - - some are also associated with other disorders
      - Predisposition depends on a variety of genes
      - one identified that controls serotonin transporter
      - alters peoples reaction to environmental influences
    - - stressful events differes from people
      - many different causes can lead to similar behaviour
- - - - in the presynaptic neuron after release
- - - - Symptoms: anxiety and agitation
  - - - prevents relapse
      - a stablising salt
- - - - Hallucinations
      - Delusions
    - - absence of socialisation
      - absence of emotions
    - - imitations of thought and reasoning
      - disorganised behavior
      - abnormal interactions between cortex, thalamus and cerebellum
  - - - Poor nutriton during pregancy
      - complications before and during deliver
      - early childhood head inhuries
      - different blood type with mother
      - season-of-birth effect
      - viral infection
  - - - Phenothiazines
      - Butyrophenones
      - block dopamine synapses
    - - relieves positive symptoms
- - - - Altering the reflection of sound waves into
        the middle ear from the outer ear
      - helps locate
    - - scala vestibuli, scala media, & the scala tympani
        
        Hair cells are auditory receptors
    - - connects to malleus, incus,
        & stapes
        
        creates stronger waves for oval window
- - - - saccule and utricle
    - - hair cells that are activated when the head moves
      - Action potentials travel to the brain stem
        and cerebellum
  - - - displacement or
        high-frequency vibrations on the skin
    - - light touch
- - - - diverse immune systems
- - - - ribosomes
      - endoplasmic reticulum
      - membrane
      - mitochondria
      - nucleus
- - - - (picture of different shapes)
  - - - (picture- skin newest/ heart oldest)
- - - - suppresses glutamate and enhances the
        release of GABA
      - neurons consequently receive less
        excitation and exposure to neurotrophins
  - - - increased risk of AHD
      - behavioral deficts
    - - risk of heart problems
- - - - sharp blow to head, not puncturing brain
      - can have slow and incomplete recovery
  - - - Hemorrhage
        
        ruptured artery
        
        neurons flooded with excess blood/ chemicals
      - Edema
        
        accumulation of fluid in the brain
        
        increased pressure
        
        disruption of sodium-potassium pump
      - Ischemia
        
        blood cloth/obstruction of an artery
        
        loss of oxygen/glucose to neurons
  - - - breaks blood cloth
- - - - Golgi tendon organ (increase in muscle tension
        
        prevents excessively
        vigorous contraction
- - - - precentral gyrus located in the frontal lobe
      - precentral gyrus axons connect to
        the brainstem and the spinal cord
      - readiness potential
  - - - Purkinje cells
        
        transmit inhibitory messages to
        the cells in the nuclei of the cerebellum
      - Parallel fibers
  - - - receive input from the cerebral cortex and send output to the globus pallidus
    - - connects to the thalamus, which relays information to the motor areas and the prefrontal cortex
- - - - memory
        and reasoning deficits
      - cognitive deficits
- - - - decreasing polarization towards zero
    - - massive depolarization
    - - increasing the
        polarization