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Linguistics for Non-Linguistics 2, arrow, feature_pileofwords, descarga,…

- - - - Cooperative Principle: is an assumption where the participants in a conversation are cooperating each other.
        
        The cooperative principle has four conversational maxims.
        
        If a maxim is violated, we draw an inference (implicature).
        
        a. Quantity: the contribution should be informative
        
        Example:
        Lisa: What are you cooking?
        Ron: Dinner.
        
        The answer was not informative with respect to the question, it is inferred that he did not want to answer.
        
        b. Quality: the contribution should be true.
        
        Example:
        Lisa: You can win the race. You are the best.
        Ron: Yeah, and you are a fortune teller who predicts the future.
        
        The answer is not true, we can infer that he is lying because he is not likely to win the race.
        
        c. Relation: the contribution should be relevant.
        
        Example:
        Lisa: What time will we eat?
        Ron: I will be leaving work late
        
        Ron's answer does not respond with a time; therefore, it is possible to infer that depending on the time he leaves work is the time they will have dinner.
        
        d. Manner: the contribution should be clear.
        
        Example:
        Lisa: Are we going to the beach for our vacation?
        Ron: Then we won't take them in the winter.
        
        Although his answer is not clear, we can infer that Ron has agreed to go to the beach as long as it is not winter since it makes it difficult to enjoy the beach.
  - - - Locutionary act: the act of saying something.
        
        The locutory act can be literal or nonliteral.
        
        Literal when the locutionary act means exactly what it says.
        
        Nonliteral when the locutionary act does not mean what it says.
      - Illocutionary act: the act of doing something.
        
        In general, there are an endless number of illocutionary acts.
        
        There are statements, commands, requests, offers, apologies, etc.
        
        The illocutionary acts can be grouped into six types:
        
        Representatives: an utterance used to describe some state of affairs.
        
        Directives: an utterance used to try to get the hearer to do something.
        
        Questions: an utterance used to get the hearer to provide information.
        
        Commissive: an utterance used to commit the speaker to do something.
        
        Expressive: an utterance used to express the emotional state of the speaker.
        
        Declarations: an utterance used to change the status of some entity.
        
        The illocutionary act can be achieved in an explicit or nonexplicit way.
        
        A nonexplicit illocutionary act can be performed directly or indirectly
        
        Felicity conditions: Valid performance of an illocutionary act.
      - Example:
        I will come in on Monday to finish the report
        
        Besides expressing something, we are making a commitment to finish something.
- - - - C. Truth
        
        The study of truth has two basic categories.
        
        The study of different types of truth embodied in individual sentences
        
        a. Analytic sentences: it is necessarily true simply by virtue of the words included.
        
        Example: A husband is a married man.
        The sentence must necessarily be true.
        
        b. Contradictory sentences: these are sentencing as just the opposite of analytic sentences. A contradictory sentence is necessarily false simply by virtue of the words in it.
        
        Example: A husband is an unmarried man.
        The sentence is false because the meaning of the words is known.
        
        c. Synthetic sentences: the sentences may be true or false depending on how the world is.
        
        Example: My boss, Luis Moreno, is married.
        By reading the sentence there is not knowledge if it is true or false.
        
        The study of different types of truth relations that hold between sentences.
        
        a. Entailment: is a proposition that follows necessarily from another sentence.
        
        Example: Julia aced Finances entails Julia passed Finances.
        The first sentence entails the second sentence. Both are true, in other example both sentences can be false.
        
        b. Presupposition: is a proposition that must be assumed to be true in order to judge the truth or falsity of another sentence.
        
        Example: Julia passed Finances.
        The sentence indicates that she enrolled in the class and studied so that she aced the course.
        
        c. Presupposition triggers: triggers are structures or words that assume or presuppose the truth of the proposition expressed in a sentence.
        
        Example: Who is the manager of the IT department?
        The question triggers the presupposition that someone is the manager of the IT department.
      - A. Sense
        
        1.1 Speaker sense: is the speaker's intention to produce some linguistic expressions.
        
        Example: when using sarcasm in speech, the intention is to say something even if its meaning is different.
        
        1.2 Linguistic sense: is the meaning of a linguistic expression as part of a language.
        
        Example: what the speaker says is exactly what he implies or means.
        
        Lexical Ambiguity: when a word has more than one sense.
        
        Example: fly, the word has more than one meaning, it can mean an insect and a verb.
        
        Synonymy: when two words have the same sense and values for all of their semantic features.
        
        Example: Smart and Intelligent
        
        Hyponymy: is a word that contains the meaning of a more general word.
        
        Example: Opera contains the meaning of the music.
        
        Overlap: two words that have the same value for some (but not all) of the semantic features that constitute their meaning.
        
        Example: sister - aunt - mother
        The relationship overlaps in the meaning [+human/-male/+kin]
        
        Antonymy: two words that have different meaning only in the value for a single semantic feature.
        
        Example: Dead and Alive..
        Dead is marked [-living] and alive is marked [+living]
      - B. Reference
        
        1.1 Speaker reference: the speaker is referring to by using some linguistic expression.
        
        Referent: The entity identified by the use of a referring expression such as a noun or noun phrase is the referent of that expression.
        
        Example: Pointing to a particular pair of shoes in a store and saying That is the pair of shoes I want, then the referent for the referring expression That pair of shoes is the particular footwear that is pointing out.
        
        1.2 Linguistic reference: is the semantic denotation of some linguistic expression as part of a language.
        
        Extension: it refers to the set of all potential referents for a referring expression.
        
        Example: The extension of shoes is the set of all shoes.
        
        Prototype: a typical member of the extension of a referring expression is a prototype of that expression.
        
        Example: the word boots or sneakers may be a prototype of shoes.
        
        Stereotype: a list of characteristics describing a prototype is said to be a stereotype.
        
        Example: the shoes are leather, have heels, have different sizes, all have soles, etc.
        
        Coreference: two linguistic expressions that refer to the same real-world entity are said to be coreferential.
        
        Example: Joe Biden is the president of the United States of America
        Joe Biden and the president of the United States of America refer to the same entity.
        
        Anaphora: a linguistic expression that refers to another linguistic expression.
        
        Example: Mary wants to play whoever thinks himself capable of beating her.
        The expression himself refers to whoever; thus, himself is being used anaphorically in this case.
        
        Deixis: the expression has one meaning but can refer to different entities depending on the speaker.
        
        Example: the words right and left can refer to the same direction depending on the position of the speaker.
- - - - 1. Categories
        
        a. Noun.
        b. Verb.
        c. Sentences
      - 2. Left-to-Right ordering. The sequence of items governed by a phrase structure rules.
        
        Phrase structure rules specify 3 types of information:
        
        a. Which elements are allowed in a particular type of phrase.
        
        b. The left-to-right order of the elements.
        
        c. Whether any of the elements are optional.
        
        Example:
        SENTENCE: S-NP-VP = A sentence consists of a noun phrase followed by a verb phrase.
        A teacher in my school lives near of my house.
      - 3. Constituent Structure
        
        Phrases, clause and sentences are sets of categories organized into a hierarchical structure.
        
        3.1 X-Bar Syntax: the organization in every sentence is in the same way considering that the phrase has a head, and might contain other phrases that modify as complements, adjuncts or specifier positions
      - Transformations: are operations that moves a lexical or phrase category from one location to another within a structure.
        
        Example: the word conceal is subcategorized for one direct object.
        
        a. John has concealed the report.
        b. John has concealed Nancy.
        c. John has concealed.
        (a) and (b) are correct because of the direct object.
        (c) is not correct because there is not direct object as the subcategorized indicates.
      - 5. Constraints
        
        a. Coordinate structure constraint: no element can be moved out of a coordinate structure.
        
        b. Unit movement constraint. no string of elements which do not form a constituent can be moved together in a single application of a movement rule.