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Comrehensive Grammar of English language, A Survey of English grammar,…
Comrehensive Grammar of English language
English language today
native and second language
former British colonies
foreign language
Voice of America
reasons
scientific literature
technology (automation, computers)
good jobs
economy (advertising and sales medium)
international aid
aviation
shipping
sport
diplomacy (international organisations)
British Council
BBC
the demand for English
The teaching of English
state educational system
higher education
school models of English
American standart variety
British standart variety
the international character of English
common heritage of the English-speaking world
the future of English
national varieties of English are separating into incomprehensible languages
artificially constructed languages have no native speakers
national standarts
standart form for written English
tolerance of nonstandard speech
Nuclear English
standards of English
conservative resistance to change
language is used less elegantly
the use of English
native (mother tongue)
functions
communicative (individuals speaking different native languages)
occupational (commerce, science, technology)
regulative (administration and court)
creative (fiction, political works)
instrumental (education)
nonnative
international (foreign language)
intranational (second language)
the importance of English
number of speakers
geographical distribution
function: science, literature
economic and political influence of the native speakers
varities of English
types of variation
social group
socioeconomic
ethnic
education (see-seed, double negation, standard and non-standard)
age
sex
field of discourse
legal
religious
archaic
learned
instructional
scientific
technical
bureaucratic
journalistic
jargon
region
dialects
phonology
vocabulary
within Britain and abroad
Australia and new Zealand
South Africa
North America and Canada
medium (proximity)
spoken (intonation, stress, gestures)
written (punctuation)
attitude (relationship)
formal
informal
neutral
colloquial
slang
very formal
standard English (spelling, dates)
British
get-got-got
the government
IS/ARE
Sue has just finished her homework
I insisted that he should take the documents
railway
tin
petrol
American
get-got-got(gotten)
the government
IS
Sue just finished her homework
I insisted that he take the documents
gas(oline)
can
railroad
African American English (dialect)
Edited American English
field
legal (written mostly)
radio commentary on a match (speech)
A Survey of English grammar
parts of the sentence
grammatical units
clause
phrase
word
morpheme
constituents
multiple
unitary
immediate
chain and choice Rs
chain (syntagmatic)
X+Y
The+ evening+s+ have+turn+ed+very+cold+just+recent+ly
choice (paradigmatic)
X/Y(commutable)
The weather has been very cold just recently
It was cold recently
very(optional) cold -cold
The grammatical Hierarchy
clause
(1 or < phrases)
phrase
(1 or <words)
word
(1 or <morphemes)
morpheme
sentence
(1 or <clauses)
Embedding
unit =constituent (not necessarily immediate)
Subordination
S1 - ?S2
Coordination S1=S2 conjoint
clauses S1=S2
prepositional phrase by car or by bus
nouns apples and bananas
clause structure
Subject (S)
Verb(V)
Object (O)
Complement (C)
Adverbial (A)
Someone
was laughing
loudly
at the next room
(A) S (A) V (O) (O) (C) (A...)
V S O C A
obligatory
not moved
medial
determines other elements
peripheral (final)
optional
mobile
does not determine other elements
Sentence
highest-ranking unit of grammar
simple sentence
multiple sentence
form and function
mobility
A - B - C - D C -A -B - D
optionality
A - B - C - D B - C - D
Noun Phrase
Verb Phrase
object
subject
Adverb Phrase
Adverbial
fixed word-order language
S
V
O
My mother
enjoys
parties
very much
Usually
usually
usually
Adverbial
obligatory immobile resemble compliments
I have been
in the garden
all the time
optional mobile sentence adverbials
To my regret, he refused the offer
disjunct
conjunct
adjunct
subordinate
subjunct
conditional
place
time
manner
degree
Clause types
3 3-element
SV
O
My mother + enjoys + parties
Elizabeth
enjoys
classical music
Od
V (monotransitive)
S
C
The country + became + totally independant
Your face
seems
familiar
Cs
V (copular)
S
A
I + have been + in the garden
My sister
lives
next door
Aa
V (copular)
S
transitive
monotransitive
ditransitive
complex transitive
copular (linking)
3 4-element
SVO
O
Mary + gave+ the visitor+ a glass of milk
We all
wish
you
a happy birthday
1 more item...
Oi
V (ditransitive)
S
C
Most people + consider + these books + rather expensive
The president
declared
the meeting
open
1 more item...
Od
V (complex transitive)
S
A
You + must put+ all the toys + upstairs
The doorman
showed
the guests
into the drawing room
1 more item...
Od
V (complex transitive)
S
1 2-element
SV
Someone + was laughing
Prices
rose
V (intransitive)
S
intransitive
objects and complements
object
Direct
Od
Indirect
Oi
complement
Subject (SVC)
Cs
Object (SVOC)
Co
Obligatory Adverbial
Subject (SVA)
As
Object (SVOA
Ao
space
direction
time
position
metaphorical
manner
active and passive structures
SVOO
My father
gave
me
this watch
Od
Oi
V
S
I
was given
this watch
by my father
A
Od
Vpass
S
This watch
was given
to me
by my father
A
Oi
Vpass
S
SVOC
Queen Victoria
considered
him
a genious
Co
Od
V
S
He
was considered
a genious
by Queen Victoria
A
Cs
Vpass
S
SVO
A number of people
saw
the accident
Od
V
S
The accident
was seen
by a number of people
A
Vpass
S
SVOA
An intruder
must have placed
the ladder
here
A
Od
V
S
The ladder
must have been placed
here
by an intruder
A
As
Vpass
S
Copular and complex transitive structures
I considered
her to be beautiful
OA
her beautiful
OCo
that she was beautiful
SVC
SV
complex
copular
indirect objects and prepositional phrases
She sent
Jim
a card
O
O
a card
to Jim
A
O
SV
She left
a card
for Jim
A
recipient
O
Jim
a card
O
O
SV
Phrases
a constituent, which Fs as an element of clause
subject
verb
object
complement
adverbial
subject
Verb phrase
Noun Phrase
Adjective Phrase
Adverb Phrase
Prepositional Phrase
structural characteristics
headed
very
important
obligatory (head)
indeed
nonheaded
to
London
cannot be omitted
Verb Phrases
auxiliary
was
has been
must have been
may have been being
main
sank
sinking
sunk
sinking
sunk
Noun Phrases
The room contains
vases
a
vase
beautiful
Flemish
determinative
some
beautiful
Flemish
I remember
determinative
premodification
head
postmodification
complementation
than that
1 more item...
with the red hair
him
Peter
wedding
1 more item...
fine warm
better
best
trip
2 more items...
good
1 more item...
Alice's
that
all those
a
the
1 more item...
Adjective Phrase
The weather was
premodification
head
postmodification
complementation
to be enjoyable
pleasant
incredibly
cold
pleasant
enough
too
hot
Adverb Phrase
I spoke to him
premodification
head
postmodification
complementation
as I could
indeed
yesterday
quite
often
severly
clearly
very
as
Prepositional Phrase
I met her
for
lunch
at
the corner of the street
preposition
prepositional complement
on
Saturday morning
by
a strange coincidence
Form and function in phrase structure
Form
adjective
preposition
pronoun
verb
noun
Function
modifier
premodifire
postmodifire
modifies the head
head
determiner
indefinite (a/an)
partitive (some)
definite (the)
universal (all)
proper nouns
personal pronouns
complement
verb complementation
He deceived
his father
adjective complementation
Mr Gould is likely
to resign
complements premodifire separated from complementation
Word clases (parts of speech)
closed classes
determiner
the
a
that
every
some
conjunction
and
that
when
although
pronoun
they
anybody
he
one
which
modal verb
must
will
can
could
preposition
in
without
at
in spite of
of
primary verbs
be
have
do
open classes
adjective
steady
new
happy
much
round
full verb
search
grow
play
nouns
room
answer
John
play
adverb
steadily
completely
really
negative particle
not
infinitive marker
to
words
lexical items
hope
happy
room
grammatical forms
happier
hoped
rooms
Forms
morphological
round
verb
preposition
noun
adverb
adjective
simple
stem only (1 morpheme)
play
complex
stem +affixes (2and > morphemes
playful
orthographic
spelling
phonological
pronunciation
homonyms
Types of equivalence
homomorph
fast (adjective)- fast (adverb)
synonym
hard - dificult
homonym
homophone
no - know
homograph
saw (noun)- saw (verb)
meaning
stative
noun
adjective
dynamic
verb
adverb
Grammar and the study of language
the meanings of "grammar"
syntax +morphology
spelling+lexicology
inflections
grammar and other types of organization
grammar and semantics
grammar and pragmatics
grammar and phonology
grammar and lexicology
lexicology, grammar, semantics, pragmatics
lexicology - study of words
pragmatics - meaning of expression within particular type of situation
semantics - study of meaning
grammar - rules for word combination
rules and the native speaker
it's difficult for a native to explain the rules
codification of rules
sounds and spellings
Phonology (phoneme)
Phonetics (articulation)
orthography
prescriptive grammar
set of regulations based on what is evaluated as correct or incorrect
hypercorrection
1 The English language
Greek
is
a
more
difficult
language
than
French
complement
premodifire