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Forests Under Threats Topic 8, GCSE Geography, : - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Permafrost ground
        
        Tree roots cannot penetrates, summer soil is very waterlogged
      - Tree roots
        
        Shallow, but wide to support tree but avoid permafrost
      - Ferns, mosses, lichens
        
        Can grow under the dense canopy in darkness
      - Seeds
        
        Protected by woody cones
      - Needle-like leaves
        
        Waxy coating preventing damage by frost and limiting water loss during dry periods
      - Pine needle layer
        
        Needles are acidic to prevent other plants from growing
      - Branches
        
        Flexible and bend downwards to shed snow
      - Coniferous trees e.g. fir, spruce, pine
        
        Tall and narrow to form a dense canopy
      - Cone shaped trees
        
        Shed winter snow easier
    - - Migrate away for winter due to cold and lack of food
    - - Thick, oily fur to retain heat and provide waterproofing
    - - Hibernate due to difficulty of finding food
  - - - Threat of Tar Sands
        
        Examples w/ Impact of the Taiga
        
        Athabasca Tar Sands, Canada - tar sands are a mixture of fossil fuel oil and sediment that can be mined and heated to separate the oil
        
        Tar sands lie under an area of taiga about 150,000 km sq.
        
        500 km sq. has been mined so far
        
        Estimates suggest tar sands could hold 1.7 trillion oil barrels
        
        Tar sands are extracted either via deforestation and strip mining surface OR steaming out the tar so it melts and can be collected
        
        Both methods destroy the forest and produce toxic waste collected in tailing ponds
        
        Mining uses 2-4 tonnes of water for every tonne of oil produced, plus natural gas to heat the water into steam
        
        James Bay HEP project, Canada - water is stored behind dams to generate HEP
        
        Located close to Hudson Bay in Quebec, Canada
        
        One of the world's largest HEP's, generating 16500 MW of electricity
        
        Built between 1974-2012, cost over US$20bn
        
        11000 km sq. of taiga has been flooded during construction
        
        Mercury was released when as the flooded forests decayed in reservoirs, polluting Rupert and La Grande rivers, getting into food web, and eventually via fish getting into the local Cree Indian population
        
        Roads, dams, reservoirs, electricity pylons have disrupted migration routes of caribou
        
        Taigas are often destroyed for the riches under the ground, as deforestation makes way for mineral/ fossil fuel exploitation; mining is a big business, which explains why there are over 4000 tar sand sites in just Ontario, Canada
      - Intact Forests
        
        Data of deforestation of all intact forests between 2000-2013 (Presented as Country - Forest Type - % of global deforestation)
        
        Canada - Taiga (Boreal Forest) - 21.4%
        
        Russia - Taiga (Boreal Forest) - 20.4%
        
        Brazil - Tropical Rainforest - 14.2%
        
        USA - Taiga (Boreal Forest) - 6.1%
        
        Bolivia - Tropical Rainforest - 4.2%
        
        Indonesia - Tropical Rainforest - 3.7%
        
        Deforestation of intact forests, as tracked via satellite data by charity Global Forest Watch
        
        Types of intact forests
        
        Primary (original) forests, not secondary or replanted forests
        
        Forests that have never been deforested
        
        Large forest areas which allow animals to move/migrate
      - Countries that chop down the most trees are those with taiga forests - Canada and Russia account for over 40% of all deforestation between 2000-2013
      - Why is taiga deforestation less of an issue than rainforest destruction?
        
        Biome is vast, so despite the rate of deforestation, only 8% of intact taiga has been lost
        
        Much of the taiga is isolated and 'out of sight' in the frozen northern latitudes
        
        There are few 'cute' and 'cuddly' animals under threat that most people are interested about
      - Use of forest resources
        
        Every year the world uses approximately 400m tonnes of paper, almost all of which comes from softwood trees like fir and pine that grow in the northern forests.
        
        80% of all tress cut down annually are softwoods
        
        Softwood also used for:
        
        Construction timber: roof beams, window and door frames
        
        Board: chipboard and fibreboard, used for flooring and furniture
        
        Paper is made by turning softwood into pulp, then crushed and ground (sometimes using chemicals) to produce a sludge, which is then turned into paper
    - - Fire
        
        Forest Fires can be a problem as...
        
        Summers can be hot, and sometimes dry
        
        Thick carpet of pine needle litter is the perfect tinder to start a fire
        
        Summer storms generate lightning strikes
        
        Coniferous trees contain sticky resin, which burns easily
        
        Wildfires in Alaska have increased since 1990s, and are more frequent in Canada and Russia - scientists argue this is due to global warming
        
        Fire creates biodiversity
        
        Fire is in fact an important, natural part of the taiga ecosystem as it allows the forest to regenerate
        
        Aspen and birch trees sprout from burnt stumps
        
        Black spruce, jack pine, lodgepole pine cones open when burnt, releasing seeds
        
        Wildfire can cause long-term reductions in biodiversity
        
        Forest will not regenerate properly, as trees will not mature between fires
        
        Fire-tolerant species begin to dominate, reducing biodiversity
        
        Trees intolerant to fire decline, and so do birds/insects that feed on them
      - Pests
        
        Taiga is home to a lot of creepy crawlies and diseases, which are normally kept in check by the harsh winters that kill them off; recent decades have seen an increase in insect infestation/disease, affecting coniferous trees
        
        Examples
        
        Spruce Bark Beetle
        
        Alaska's taiga severely affected by this beetle
        
        In Kenai Peninsula, 2.5m hectares of spruce have been destroyed
        
        Beetles bore into spruce trees, eventually killing them
        
        Warmer winters, blamed on global warming, stop larvae dying in winter, creating large infestations
        
        Large storms, which knock down trees, seem to cause beetles to fly and infest new areas
        
        Mountain Pine Beetle
        
        Has destroyed 16m hectares of lodgepole pine forest in British Colombia, Canada
        
        Beetles introduce fungus to tree and both it and the larvae cut off the flow of water within the tree, killing it
        
        Global warming, with milder winters/ warmer summers, widely linked by scientists to the spread of this beetle
        
        White Pine Blister Rust
        
        Fungal disease attacking white pine trees
        
        Around 1900, accidentally introduced from Europe to N. America, so is an invasive species
        
        White pine was once an economically important tree for commercial logging in Quebec, but blister rust devastated trees, preventing regrowth
        
        Consequences
        
        Biodiversity is reduced as only forest trees that are resistant end up growing in the area
        
        Reduce commercial value of forest, preventing it being sold as timber
        
        Dramatically alters the ecosystem - killing tree species alters food web
        
        Change landscape from a dense forest to more open landscape with fewer trees
      - Acid Rain
        
        Some parts of Taiga are effective by acid rain, esp. Scandinavia, E.Russia, SE. Canada, E.USA
        
        All rain is slightly acidic, but a pH lower than 5.7 is more acid than natural
        
        Acid rain forms when
        
        Fossil fuels are burnt, releasing sulphuric and nitric acids
        
        These react with water in clouds to form sulphuric and nitric acids
        
        Precipitation carries these acids down to the surface
        
        Acid rain makes lakes and wetlands in the taiga so acidic that fish/ aquatic plants die; it also weakens trees
        
        Consequences of Acid Rain
        
        It damages needles (esp. spruce) and their ability to photosynthesise
        
        When taiga soils become too acidic, aluminium compounds are released, which damage tree roots
        
        Damaged soils contain less calcium & magnesium - essential plant nutrients
        
        Weaker roots cannot take up nutrients
        
        Weak trees are more vulnerable to disease and insect attack
        
        Biodiversity is reduced as forests become stressed - some trees die, reducing availability of food for other species
        
        Plants tolerating acidic soils and reduced nutrients dominate, leaving only the insects and other animals that can thrive on such plants
  - - - Precipitation is lower - with chemical weathering limited due to cold temperatures
      - Most nutrients in litter - pine needles decay slower in cold temperatures for slow nutrient release
      - Small biomass - trees only grow for a few months per yr
- - - - Info
        
        Stands for Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
        
        Is an international treaty which came into force in 1975; adopted by 180 countries
        
        Lists 34000 endangered species of animals (5000) and plants (29000), incl. 1200 that are the most threatened like red pandas, rhinos, parrots
        
        Bans cross-border trade in listed species in the hope that illegal hunting/ collecting will stop
      - Advantages and Disadvantages
        
        Advantages
        
        Many countries have signed up; countries co-operate on trade
        
        Protected species include a wide variety of species geographically and by type
        
        Has some key successes, eg. reducing the ivory trade, halting African elephant decline
        
        Works well for high profile 'cute and cuddly' threatened species such as snow leopard
        
        Disadvantages
        
        Protects species, not ecosystems, so doesn't prevent deforestation
        
        Global warming could undermine its successes
        
        Relies on countries setting up and funding monitoring and policing systems, which LICs cannot afford
        
        Species have to be threatened to get onto the list, by which the problem may be too late to solve
    - - Parrots are popular pets in N. American and Europe - some are legally bred, but the illegal trade is huge, leading to the threat of extinction
      - A breeding pair of rare parrots/macaws can sell for over US$10000
      - Conservation and banning illegal trade are ways to protect them
    - - Aims
        
        Reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation
        
        Conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks
        
        Suitable management of forests
      - Info
        
        Stands for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation
        
        A United National Project - purpose is to stop deforestation, which is the leading cause of global warming - 20% of all CO2 emissions come from deforestation
        
        Works through governments and TNCs in developed countries funding projects to conserve forests in developing countries.
        
        Motive is to offset their own CO2 emissions and this meet their emission reduction targets (critics argue that offsetting is an easy way for developed countries to appear to reduce their CO2 pollution without actually reducing it
      - Juma Sustainable Forest Reserve (SFR)
        
        About
        
        People
        
        5880 km sq. (size of Norfolk or Devon)
        
        35 villages
        
        Total population of 2400 people
        
        Biodiversity
        
        21 different primate species
        
        430 different bird species
        
        Only 1% of Juma area has been deforested
        
        Info
        
        Area of pristine tropical rainforest in the Amazon, 230 km south of Manaus
        
        First protected in 2006 - Brazil's first REDD project
        
        Closest settlement in Novo Aripuana
        
        Run by Amazonas Sustainable Foundation, a non-governmental organisation (NGO)
        
        Local people are not paid not to cut down the forest:
        
        Money to pay for conservation is donated by TNC Marriott Hotels, a Brazilian bank, Bradesco Bank, and the regional government of Amazonas State
        
        Families that live in Juma SFR are paid $28 per month (given to women) if they agree to not deforestate - called the 'Bolsa Floresta' programme
        
        Idea is to give people an alternative income so they no longer need to deforestate
        
        Successes and Problems
        
        Has it been successful?
        
        Without protection 60% of Juma's forest would be gone by 2050
        
        It protects a large enough area to support carnivores and larger primates
        
        Incomes have risen through Bolsa Floresta payments
        
        Funding has built seven schools, trained people in sustainable farming, provided cleaner water, added solar panels to some roofs
        
        Ecotourism is being developed to provide extra income for families
        
        On the other hand...
        
        Relies on donations from Marriott hotels; if these stop, the project may stop
        
        Money for families is less than $1/day, whereas reserve managers get $25000 annually
        
        Local people have 'signed' the rights to use forest products
        
        Huge area is hard to police, so illegal logging might continue
  - - - Birds
        
        Loud calls because of dense canopy, Powerful beaks to break nuts
      - Big Cats
        
        Camoflagued fur to blend with sunlight & shade on Forest Floor
      - Primates
        
        Live in canopy where there's food, Long Tails for balance
      - Sloths
        
        Claws, Fur grows away from feet, Green algae in fur for camoflague
    - - Drip Tip Leaves
        
        Thick, waxy leaves shed water quickly to prevent rotting
      - Lianas
        
        Climbing plants on trees to gain nutrients/water from soil + sunlight
      - Epiphytes
        
        Live on trees in canopy gaining nutrients from soil, hence dangling roots
      - Evergreen Hardwood Trees
        
        Tall, Slender, No branches, Triangular buttress roots
  - - - Deforestion, occuring due to...
        
        Rate differences due to...
        
        Isolation e.g. DRC due to inaccessibility
        
        Forest protection e.g. MICs like Brazil & Malaysia
        
        Industries e.g. Palm Oil in Indonesia
        
        Poverty regions, e.g. in LICs like Burundi
        
        Poverty - In LICs people cut down small areas to farm to make a living
        
        Debt - Cutting down timber/ growing cash crops to pay off debts
        
        Economic development - Most TRs in developing world; forest is sacrificed for infrastructure i.e. roads, cities, HEP stations
        
        Demand for resources - Raw materials need the forest to be destroyed to get them; land is needed to feed the population
        
        Examples:
        
        Mineral Exploitation - Coltan Mining in DRC - Coltan used in mobile phones; dug by poor families and sold to TNCs; leads to large areas of forest cleared
        
        HEP - Tucurui Dam, Amazonia, Brazil - Dam launched in 1985 for US$6bn; electricity used for iron ore and bauxity mines by TNCs like Vale, especially largest iron ore mine @ Grand Carajas; flooded 1750 sq km of forest
        
        Biofuels - Palm Oil, Indonesia - 6m hectares of palm oil plantations + plans for an extra 4m; palm oil is used in biofuels, cosmetics, food; demand means more burnt rainforests
    - - Global Warming
        
        Temp rise of 1 deg
        
        10% land species face extinction
        
        Alpine, mountain, tundra biomes shrink as temperatures rise
        
        Temp rise of 2 deg
        
        15-40% land species face extinction
        
        Biomes shift towards Poles; animal migration patterns change; extreme weather affects pollination and migration
        
        Temp rise of 3 deg
        
        20-50% land species face extinction
        
        Forest biomes are stressed by drought; flooding leads to loss of coastal mangroves; pests/ diseases thrive due to rising temperatures
        
        Already...
        
        Plants are flowering earlier
        
        Bird Migration Patterns are changing
        
        Arctic Tundra is warming rapidly
        
        Vegetation zones are shifting towards Poles by 6km every 10yrs
      - Climate Stress
        
        Drought puts forest ecosystem under stress by:
        
        Canopy leaves die; reduces food supply and affects food webs
        
        Drying leaf litter so decomposes die; threat to nutrient cycle
        
        Drought struck in 2014, with scientists arguing that:
        
        Deforestation increases the frequency and severity of drought
        
        Fewer trees = less evaporation & less transpiration
        
        Amazon had 2 droughts in 2005 and 2010
        
        2005 drought was a ‘1 in 100 yr’ drought
        
        Amazon switched from absorbing CO2 to emitting it because plants stopped growing
        
        Forest fires broke out burning trees and litter, hence emitting CO2
        
        If drought becomes more common, rainforests suffer permanently; could potentially become sources of CO2, rather than CO2 sinks, potentially accelerating global warming more, exacerbating problems.
        
        Drought increases the probability of forest fires, and could potentially turn rainforests into tropical grasslands - scientists think that by 2100 between 30% to 60% of the Amazon could become a dry savanna
  - - - Hardwood, evergreen trees broken through the Canopy to reach sunlight; monkeys and birds live here
    - - Dense layer with lots of food available; tree snakes, frogs, birds, etc live here
    - - Young trees with large leaves to capture sunlight; insects live here
    - - Shade-loving ferns with large; mammals live here
  - - - Litter and soil easily erode during heavy rains
      - Land can't be farmed on for too long
    - - Larger biomass store - in layers of vegetation and huge trees
      - Small litter store + large decay transfer - humid conditions aid bacterial/fungal decay of dead matter, moving nutrients to the soil
      - Larger growth transfer - growth all year round, so continual usage of nutrients from the soil
      - Larger weathering input - chemical weathering is faster in hot climates, so release nutrients
      - Larger leaching output - heavy rainfall brings nutrients, but constant flow of water removes them (leaching)
  - - - Often called 'lungs of the planet'
      - Produces 20% of global oxygen
      - Over 40000 plant species
      - Over 2m insect species
      - Deforestation rate has slowed since 2004