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How can I help my students grow as discussion participants? (Note on 8/15:…

- - - - Whole class discussion that focuses on "the quantity of an individual's verbal remarks" can stifle attempts at creating an equitable learning space, as it "encourages competition over cooperation" (Hard and RaoShah, 2021, 2).
        
        According to Hollander (2003), grading individual performance may exacerbate the "competition" described by Hard and RaoShah (2021).
        
        The fast-paced nature of discussion may prevent some students from participating. As Fowler (2014) notes, in this sort of environment, "quick thinking is privileged. Students who are shy and/or reflecting on content may not be given [an] opportunity to speak, leading to narrowing of expressed perspectives..." (p.15).
        
        Tanner's (2013) article encourages teachers to overcome these barriers to participation by ensuring that students have time to process and collect their ideas by themselves and with others.
      - Supposedly immutable personality traits: Seeing "introversion and extroversion [as]... inherent and unchanging features of children and adults rather than seeing the ability to communicate with others in different social settings as a skill to be learned" (Gillis, 2019, 12).
      - A student's lack of connection with their teacher and/or classmates (Gillis, 2019)
      - Cohen and Lotan (1995) point out that, in small group tasks, students who have high academic "status [relative to the group]" can "dominate those who are seen as having less ability relative to the group in schoolwork or reading" (p.101).
        
        However, Cohan and Lotan (1995), in their study of elementary school classrooms, found that teachers, "as a high-status source," can intervene by highlighting the abilities of "low-status" individuals (the "multiple-abilities treatment") and thereby creating an environment in which "high" status individuals did not dominate the discussion (p102, 114).
        
        Perhaps the work of Yosso (2005) can complement the work of Cohen and Lotan (1995) by incorporating different kinds of capital into the "multiple abilities treatment."
        
        However, this study involves contextual limitations for application in a high school environment.
        
        Cohen and Lotan (1999) caution in a later piece that a this intervention may not be as effective in middle school classrooms, as "students develop their own sources of status such as peer popularity that may be quite independent of academic status" (p.85). This finding suggests that high-schools like Deerfield will present a similar problem in addressing "status" issues.
      - "Socialization" and "structural opportunities" prevent students from having adequate preparation for participating in college discussions (Gillis, 2019, p.12-13).
    - - "The 'best' way to teach equitably... may be to consistently provide multiple entry points into the conceptual material for students" (Tanner, 2013, p.328)
        
        This call from Tanner (2013) fits well into Brookfield's (1999) encouragement to ensure "that everyone finds ways to contribute to others' understanding," whether it be through "alternative media" or "small group interactions" (p.10).
  - - - Four "purpose[s]" provided by Brookfield (1999): a) "to help participants reach a more critically informed understanding about the topic or topics under consideration; b) to enhance participants' self-awareness and their capacity for self-critique; c) to foster an appreciation among participants for the diversity of opinion that invariably emerges when viewpoints are exchanged openly and honestly; d) to act as a catalyst to helping people take informed action in the world" (p.6)
    - - Hard and RaoShah (2021) indicate some benefits associated with participating in class: "increased motivation, connection to the course, and deeper engagement with and understanding of the material... development of critical thinking skills, self-reported gains in character and higher grades" (p.1)
    - - Benefits of highlighting collaboration
        
        "Prior work suggests that emphasizing classroom collaboration improves many aspects of classroom experience, including achievement and productivity, anxiety, self-esteem, motivation, and positive attitudes toward instructors" (Hard and RaoShah, 2021, p.2).
    - - Reisman et al. (2017) define "text-based, whole-class discussion in history classrooms as those activities in which the teacher and all the students negotiate historical questions or controversies using each other's ideas and historical texts as resources. The purposes of such discussions are to build collective knowledge and allow students to practice listening, speaking, and engaging in historical interpretation" (p.279).
        
        In her previous work, Reisman (2012) identifies "historical reading" skills that are, according to the work published in collaboration with her peers (2017), relevant to historical discussion.
  - - - A collaborative process in which students have multiple ways in which they can offer their ideas to the discussion of history.
- - - - Extrinsic and Intrinsics Motivation: Toshalis and Nakkula (2012) claim that extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are not separate entities, since "external motivators" influence intrinsic motivation (p.8-9). They also suggest that forming "deep" connections with students can help motivate students to "internalize" the "external motivations" put on them by teachers (and perhaps their classmates) (p.9).
        
        "As a classroom community, our capacity to generate excitement is deeply affected by our interest in one another, in hearing one another’s voices, in recognizing one another’s presence" (hooks, 1994, 8).
        
        Of course, teachers need to attend to the previous messaging that students have received about participating in class. (See "inequity" section on left)
    - - Brookfield (1999) suggests that teachers can help students talk in class by working to help the class see the significance of each student's contribution: "The incentive to participate diminishes when what one says is ignored or leaves no discernible impact" (p.10).
        
        Roberts and Friedman (2013) note that, in college courses, "student-perceived teacher immediacy" can lead to "an increased willingness to talk and participated in class. It is suggested that using nonverbal cues such as smiling, nodding, maintaining eye contact, and looking relax may all promote student discussion" (p.39).
  - - - Perhaps lends itself well to what Toshalis and Nakkula (2012) identify as "expectancy-value theory," in which "we are motivated to devote energy to those activities in which we expect to succeed, and we subsequently tend to value those activities over others" (p.10). McMillan and Hearn (2008) echo this idea by highlighting the importance of "self-efficacy" as lending itself to high levels of motivation (p.44).
- - - - Students need to operate at their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) in order for "optimal learning [to] occur" (Toshalis and Nakkula, 2006, 11-12).
        
        Discussion skills can be learned (inspired by Augusta Nau's inquiry presentation)
        
        Reisman et al. (2018) suggest that history teachers can help students engage in effective discussions by paying attention to the cognitive, communal, and disciplinary-specific components of the discussion (see p.280-281 for specifics).
        
        Wiggins (1989) complements the work of Reisman et al. (2018) by encouraging teachers to make use of open-ended essential questions that will encourage students to ask questions.
        
        Michaels et al. (2007) suggest that teachers can help students acquire discussion skills (i.e. building off of each other's comments) by regularly modeling the kind of language that will facilitate such a conversation. The authors highlight the importance of having "interesting and complex ideas" to allow students to explore their ideas (p. 287).
        
        Hess and Parker (2001) suggest that discussion skills can be acquired (source found by watching Augusta Nau's inquiry presentation).
        
        Scaffolding reflective growth through goal-setting
        
        Scaffolding Reflection
        
        Coulson and Harvey (2013) emphasize the need to scaffold discussion and to clarify the "intent, purpose, and context for reflection" among teacher and students (p.405)
        
        Providing questions that help guide reflection may enhance the quality of reflection provided, as shown in a study conducted by Moussa-Inaty (2015). This finding seems to echo an observation made by Eva Liu (BSTR '21) in her inquiry presentation.
        
        Hollander (2002) provides a sample discussion self-evaluation assignment (and I plan to base the self-reflection form for my students on that form (see p.326).)
        
        Rubric will be made available for students to assess their performance to learning standards.
        
        Goal setting and growth
        
        McMillan and Hearn (2008) highlight the importance of providing clear "learning objectives" such that students can establish clear goals to meet those objectives, thereby allowing students to have strong self-efficacy (p.44-45).
        
        Gillis (2019) encourages educators to take a broader view of "participation" such that students learn that "participation" is not necessarily synonymous with "speaking up;" rather, it is a "skill" to be learned by creating goals for oneself (p.13-15).
        
        Gillis (2019) highlights an important limitation with evaluating class-participation: "The biggest limitation is that I must rely on student self-report, which can also be biased (Bippus and Young 2000), especially considering they have an incentive to report good behaviors to receive a better grade" (p.19).
        
        Intervention Ideas