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WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE (Stratford-Upon-Avon, 23 April? 1564 - 23 April? 1616)…

- - - - they built The Globe theatre - see general map
- - - - 1623 - edition of 36 plays
- - - - in decasyllables, 3 quatrains and a final couplet - see general map
      - 9th line: turning point (Petrarchan 'two-poem' structure)
      - no title, no chronological order
      - TWO SECTIONS: (addressees are a novelty and a break with tradition)
        
        addressed to a FAIR YOUTH (probably the Earl of Southampton)
        
        1st to 18th
        
        theme of INCREASE
        
        the poet encourages the young man to marry and have children to preserve his virtues and beauty
        
        example:
        
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        19th to 126th
        
        different topics
        
        moral WEAKNESS
        
        78th to 86th
        
        concerned with a 'rival poet' who has addressed poems to the young man
        
        destructive power of TIME
        
        an antagonist
        
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        traditional love poems praising women's worth and beauty (to the young man)
        
        addressed to a DARK LADY or BLACK WOMAN (physically unattractive but desirable for the poet)
        
        127th to 154th
        
        negative and non-conventional poems (to the woman)
        
        'My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun' (130)
        
        'Thou Blind Fool, Love, What Dost Thou To Mine Eyes' (137)
      - universal themes from a more conscious (dramatist) point of view
        
        beauty
        
        art
        
        love
        
        death
        
        time
      - STYLE:
        
        vivid descriptive language
        
        absence of classical references
        
        immediate speech
        
        conversational style
        
        abrupt beginning
        
        use of questions
        
        pronouns 'thou' and 'thee'
- - - - he asked for the active cooperation of the spectator
  - - - allegorical scenes, music, magical transformations
    - - assonance
      - allitteration
      - metaphors
      - IMAGE-CLUSTERS
        
        recurrent groupings of metaphors and similes
      - similes
    - - clothes imagery in MACBETH
      - figures of disease, corruption and death in HAMLET
      - light/dark imagery in ROMEO AND JULIET
    - - mythological allusions
      - NEW WORDS
      - archaic words
    - - reshaping of the blank verse: irregular lines
- - - - irresponsible young men
        
        Hal becomes Henry V and Falstaff is banished
- - - - Pericles travels to Tarsus where he provides food for the city in famine and meets the Governors Cleon and Dyoniza, then he is shipwrecked in Pentapolis, where he wins a context to marry Thaisa, King Simonides' daughter
        
        After Anthiocus' death, Pericles sets sail for Tyrus but during a storm Thaisa dies after giving birth to Marina and is buried at sea. Pericles lands at Tarsus and entrusts Marina to Cleon and Dyoniza.
        
        Thaisa's coffin lands at Efesus, where Cerimon revives her. She becomes a priestess at the temple of Diana. Meanwhile Dyoniza, envious of the 14-yo Marina, more beautiful than her own daughter, arranges her murder, but Marina is abducted by pirates who sells her in Mytilene.
        
        Pericles arrives by chance in Mytilene and Lysimachus, the governor, brings Marina to the ship to rouse Pericles from his sorrows (Cleon and Dyoniza told him that Marina died). Pericles understands that Marina is her daughter. He promises Marina to Lysimachus and goes to Ephesus, according to a dream. There, he meets Thaisa and the family is reunited.
- - - - Iachimo, a Roman soldier, bets against Posthumus' diamond ring that he can seduce Imogen. After some multiple plots involving deceit and cross-dressing, Iachimo confesses and Imogen reveals her true identity and is reunited with Posthumus
- - - - After 16 years, Perdita marries Polixene's son Florizel
- - - - During a tempest, Alonso, King of Naples, and Antonio, Duke of Milan, are shipwrecked on an enchanted island. This has all been engineered by Prospero, a magician who lives there with his daughter Miranda. Years before, Prospero had been unfairly exiled from his Dukedom of Milan by his brother Antonio and, on the island, had met the witch Sycorax, who lived there with her son Caliban and the imprisoned spirit of the air Ariel. Prospero released Ariel, who became his agent, and used Caliban as a servant.
      - Second Act
        
        King Alonso thinks his son Ferdinand has drowned, but he is wandering through another part of the island, moved by Ariel's singing. He meets Miranda and falls in love with her.
        
        Third Act
        
        Prospero makes Ferdinand perform menial task to test him. Meanwhile, Caliban meets Trinculo, the king's jester and Stephano, the royal butler, and they plan to kill Prospero. Ariel hears them and reports the plan to Prospero.
        
        Fourth Act
        
        Prospero complete his plans of reward and punishment
        
        Fifth Act
        
        Miranda and Ferdinand marry, Prospero forgives his brother and returns to his Dukedom in Milan, Caliban is left alone on the island and Ariel is released
    - - An exotic island in the Mediterranean (unity of place) where the action takes place within 3 hours (unity of time), but no unity of action
      - CHARACTERS
        
        Ariel
        
        He is fast, can become invisible and change his appearance. Sycorax had confined him in a pine tree. His name means the 'Lion of the Lord'
        
        Caliban
        
        the son of Sycorax and the devil. He showed Prospero how to survive on the island and Prospero taught him to speak, but when he tried to rape Miranda, Prospero enslaved and punished him. He is associated with darkness in contrast with Miranda's purity
        
        Prospero
        
        A magician whose magic powers come from his studies, his books, his robe and his wand
        
        Miranda
        
        She embodies female perfection (Miranda: to be wondered at)
        
        SOURCES
        
        On Cannibals - Montaigne's essay (1603)
        
        Metamorphosis - Ovid
        
        True Repertory of the Wreck - William Stratchey (1610)
        
        THEMES
        
        POWER
        
        the double nature of power as a divine right, self-created through self-knowledge (Prospero) and as inheritance (Caliban)
        
        ENGLISH EXPANSION
        
        Prospero is a symbol of colonial power, a European who has taken charge of a remote island and got the local inhabitants to work for him
        
        MAGIC
        
        Theatrical illusion and distinction between white (Prospero) and black (Sycorax) magic.
        
        NURTURE vs NATURE
        
        Opposition between nurture (education and civilization) and nature (the natural state of man) embodied by Prospero and Caliban and the relation of master and servant modelled on the colonial experience according to which the colonizers have the duty to educate savages.
        
        link to the myth of the 'Noble Savage' (the natural goodness of uncivilised people) by Montaigne
        
        FORGIVENESS
        
        the play ends in peace
        
        STYLE
        
        different levels of speech and action
        
        a character can switch from prose to verse
        
        allegorical scenes, noises, sounds, transformations
        
        The Italian Commedia dell'Arte
- - - - Themes of friendship and infidelity, conflict between friendship and love
        
        Comical element introduced by Launce, the clownish servant of Proteus, and his dog Crab
  - - - When the Princess of France arrives with 3 ladies, the oath fails
  - - - The Lord arranges for Sly the performance 'The Taming of the Shrew'
        
        Main plot: In Padua, the courtship of Petruchio for Katherina, tempered but tamed with psychological torments until she becomes an obedient wife
        
        Sub-plot: a competition between the suitors of Katherina's more obedient wife, Bianca
  - - - the story is complicated when they enter a forest ruled by Oberon (the King of the Fairies) and Queen Titania
        
        Themes:
        
        the triumph of love
        
        the evanescent nature of theatre
    - - Puck: a magic creature full of mischief and tricks
      - Bottom the weaver and his friends, they perform the play Pyramus and Thisbe
        
        before the wedding between Duke Theseus of Athens and the Amazonian Queen Hippolyta
  - - - Antipholus of Syracuse and his servant Dromio, Antipholus of Ephesus and his servant Dromio
      - based on Plautus' Menaechmi
- - - - they conspire with Don Pedro, the Prince of Aragon, to trick their friends Beatrice and Benedick, into confessing their love for one another
        
        Don Pedro's illegitimate brother, Don John, is jealous of Don Pedro's power and his affection for Claudio
        
        plans to destroy the upcoming wedding
  - - - Her usurping uncle, Duke Frederick, banishes her from the court, so she disguises herself as Ganymede and travels with her cousin Celia, disguised as Aliena and the jester Touchstone to the Forest of Arden, where her father lives in exile
        
        Mistaken identities, sexual ambiguities, homosexual feelings caused by women's cross-dressing
        
        Rosalind marries Orlando
        
        but also
        
        Celia and Orlando's mean older brother Oliver
        
        Phoebe and Silvius
        
        Audrey and Touchstone
        
        the exiled Duke is restored to the throne
        
        'All the world's a stage,/And all the men and women merely players'
  - - - Themes:
        
        jealousy and revenge
        
        Love and marriage
        
        class and wealth
  - - - Orsino uses Cesario as an intemediary with Lady Olivia, his beloved
        
        Olivia falls in love with Cesario/Viola, believing he is a man
        
        Viola/Cesario falls in love with the Duke, who thinks he is a man
        
        Sebastian, Viola's identical twin, is rescued and helped by his friend Antonio, who gives him money to get along in Illyria
        
        after some comic episodes, the order is restored
        
        Olivia marries Sebastian
        
        Viola marries Orsino
  - - - SETTING
        
        16th century VENICE
        
        autonomous trading town, symbol of wealth and greed
        
        Jews forced to wear a red hat, they lived in the ghetto
        
        strict laws, world dominated by men
        
        two views:
        
        Shylock, Jew
        
        the greedy side
        
        Antonio, Christian
        
        the wealth
        
        BELMONT
        
        a world of ideal love
        
        women have more power
        
        idyllic place
        
        where the lovers come together
        
        man and woman, Christian and Jew together
      - CHARACTERS
        
        Shylock
        
        emphasis on his humanity: his hatred of the Christian arose from the abuse he suffered
        
        In Elizabethan England Jews were portrayed as villains
        
        his lack of mercy for Antonio sheds a negative light on him
        
        deprived of his identity as a Jew at the end, excluded from his community due to his enforced conversion
        
        completion of his persecution process
        
        Christian characters - ambiguous
        
        Bassanio
        
        wants to marry Portia mainly because he is in debt
        
        Antonio
        
        hate Jews only because they are Jews
      - THEMES
        
        LOVE AND HATE
        
        MERCY, JUSTICE AND REVENGE
        
        APPEARANCE AND REALITY
        
        ANTISEMITISM
        
        FEMINISM
        
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        Even though Shylock is depicted as an inhuman creature, he gives the most moving speech in which he criticises Antonio's racism and asserts the humanity of his own race
        
        Disguises
        
        Portia and Nerissa disguise themselves as the lawyer Balthazar and his assistant
        
        Jessica dresses up as a boy to elope with Lorenzo
        
        Christian mercy
        
        'turn the other cheek'
        
        Shylock's justice
        
        'an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth'
        
        love of a friend
        
        romantic love
        
        love for money and possessions
      - MAIN PLOT:
        
        the dispute about a financial loan between the Venetian Antonio and the Jewish moneylender Shylock
      - SUBPLOT:
        
        the choice of a husband by the rich lady Portia from Belmont
      - FIRST ACT
        
        SECOND ACT
        
        THIRD ACT
        
        FOURTH ACT
        
        FIFTH ACT
        
        In front of Portia's mansion in Belmont. Lorenzo and Jessica comment upon the themes raised in the play.
        
        1 more item...
        
        Trial at the Court of the Duke of Venice. Portia disguises as a lawyer and offers Shylock a huge sum of money to persuade him to drop the charge against Antonio, but he refuses.
        
        She twists the situation by saying that he can take a pound of flesh but no blood, and by pointing out that Shylock is a non-citizen of Venice who is threatening the life of a citizen, being subject to the death penalty.
        
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        Venice. Shylock is furious because Jessica has fled his house with his ducats and jewels.
        
        Belmont. Bassanio chooses the lead casket and finds the portrait of Portia, who agrees to marry him.
        
        Sea. Antonio's ships are shipwrecked, so he is put in jail in Venice because he cannot repay Shylock.
        
        The Prince of Morocco chooses the golden casket and the Prince of Aragon the silver one (both wrong). Shylock's daughter Jessica gives the servant-clown Launcelot a letter for her secret lover, Lorenzo, in which she promises to elope with him
        
        the golden casket contains the line 'All that glisters is not gold'
        
        The Christian Antonio has invested all his money in foreign trade. HIs friend Bassanio is leaving to Belmont to woo Portia. Her father has arranged for her suitors to choose among 3 caskets (gold-silver-lead). The suitor who chooses the one containing Portia's portrait will marry her.
        
        Bassanio needs money for her courtship but Antonio can't help him, so they ask Shylock, who lends him 3000 ducats for 3 months. If he fails to repay him, Antonio must give a pound of his flesh to Shylock
        
        in the popular narrative tradition things come in threes
- - - - she chooses Count Bertram, who abandons her for a military career and tells her he will become her husband if she manages to take the ring from his finger and conceive a child from him
        
        She succeds in her task by means of tricks and disguises
  - - - he condemns Claudio to death for fornication
        
        Claudio's virginal sister Isabella comes to plead for his life
        
        he blackmails her to have sex with him for Claudio's life
        
        Mariana takes Isabella's place and Angelo is tricked
        
        Claudio is rescued and Isabella becomes the Duke's bride
  - - - 2nd plot: the war of Troy and the fight between Hector and Achilles
        
        Betrayal and dishonour prevail on chivalry and faithfulness
- - - - FIRST ACT
        
        SECOND ACT
        
        THIRD ACT
        
        FOURTH ACT
        
        FIFTH ACT
        
        At Juliet's tomb, Romeo takes some poison and dies while kissing her lips. Juliet wakes up at that moment and seeing Romeo dead, stabs herself with a dagger.
        
        Friar Laurence gives Juliet a drug that makes her appear to be dead on the morning of the wedding with Count Paris, arranged by her father. The friar sends a messenger to Mantua but Romeo hears that Juliet is dead before his arrival and returns to Verona
        
        Public events part: during a street fight, Romeo's friend Mercutio is killed by Tybalt, Juliet's cousin. Romeo kills Tybalt in revenge and is banished to Mantua.
        
        Private events: Romeo and Juliet's wedding night at the Capulets' house
        
        Romeo overhears Juliet expressing her love for him in the Capulets' garden. He answers her and they declare their love
        
        Friar Laurence secretly marries them in a chapel, and hopes that this marriage may end the families' quarrel
        
        In a Verona Street. Romeo Montague reveals his cousin Benvolio to be in love with Rosaline, but she doesn't love him, so he persuades Benvolio to attend him in disguise at a party at Capulets' House, where he will see Rosaline
        
        At the party, Romeo meets Juliet and they fall in love at first sight, but they discover that their families are professed enemies
    - - ROMEO:
        
        a man belonging to the courtly love convention:
        
        he compares her to the light of the torches (when he first sees her) and to sunlight, daylight and the light emanating from angels (balcony scene)
        
        loyalty and love demonstrated by his suicide
      - JULIET:
        
        from an obedient child to maturity (when she first meets Romeo)
        
        a real woman, strong and determinate
        
        so determinate to kill herself for her love (and not for her weakness) with a dagger because of her strong love
    - - PASSION AND VIOLENCE
        
        deaths, suicides, families' hate
      - INDIVIDUAL AGAINST SOCIETY
        
        The lovers' and the society's will are in conflict
      - THE POWER OF LOVE
        
        melancholic, euphuistic, passionate, violent, real, ennobling
        
        more important than their families, loyalties and lives
      - FATE
        
        defined as 'star-cross'd lovers' at the beginning of the play (chorus), meaning that their love will end tragically
        
        lovers' negative feelings during the play about what is going to happen
        
        powerful element of incomplete knowledge
      - EROS AND THANATOS
        
        the lovers' bodies are united only in death
        
        metaphor strengthened by the contrast between light and dark
        
        they mainly meet at night (the ball, the balcony scene, the wedding night) anticipating the end of the play
        
        dark associated with death
    - - immature
      - regular rhythms and rhymes (couplets)
      - sonnets into the dialogues
      - oxymora
        
        dark and light
        
        Montagues and Capulets
        
        love and hate
        
        peace and fighting
        
        life and death
        
        young and old
    - - Verona selected as setting because of the VIOLENCE and PASSION of Italians
    - - The tragicall Historye of Romeus and Juliet (1562) developed by some European writers
      - Film: Romeo+Juliet (1996) - Leonardo Di Caprio and Claire Danes - By Baz Luhrmann - iambic pentameter and street language are not lost, event though the setting is contemporary Verona Beach, California and their families are two rival gangs
      - Songs:
        
        Taylor Swift's Love story (2008)
        
        Dire Straits' Romeo and Juliet (1980)
- - - - Brutus speaks to the mob about the dangers of Caesar's ambition. Mark Antony's (Caesar's trusted consul) funeral oration causes the crowd's mutiny - conspirators flee from Rome.
        
        Brutus (Caesar's successor) is visited by his father's ghost before the battle against Antony and Octavius. Caesar predicts his death at Philippi, where he is defeated and kills himself with a sword.
        
        Ending. Antony defines Brutus 'the noblest Roman of them all' because he was the only conspirator who acted for the good of Rome.
        
        Brutus: modern tragic hero anticipating Hamlet
  - - - The imperialistic logic of the triumvirs Octavius Caesar, Antony and Lepidus.
        
        the clash between
        
        Rome
        
        political reason and heroic deeds
        
        Egypt
        
        lust, perversion and treachery
        
        the blind passion between Antony and Cleopatra, that leads them to their downfall and tragic death - inner conflict between love and power
  - - - accused of treason and sent to exile by the conquered people (he doesn't respect their rights)
        
        He joins the Volscian general Aufidius in order to take revenge, but since the general is jealous of his charismatic power, he accuses Coriolanus of betrayal - He is murdered by conspirators
  - - - Titus kills 2 of them and cooks them into a pie, which he serves to their mother before killing her, too.
        
        The Roman Emperor kills Titus, and Titus' last remaining son Lucius kills the emperor and takes his place
- - - - Historia Danica by Saxo Grammaticus (12th century)
        
        translated into French by Belleforest in 1576
      - Ur-Hamlet (maybe by Thomas Kyd) - 1594
      - DRAMATIC STRUCTURE:
        
        revenge tragedy
        
        play-within-the-play device
        
        problem play
        
        confrontation between psychological insight and deed
        
        PLOT:
        
        First act
        
        Second act
        
        Third act
        
        Fourth Act
        
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        During the play, King Claudius rises and rushes away. Hamlet has an argument with his mother in her bedroom, during which he kills Polonius, who was hiding behind a curtain to overhear the conversation. The king decides to send Hamlet to England to get rid of him.
        
        Hamlet pretends to be mad in order to carry out his plan. Polonius, the king's counsellor, thinks Hamlet's madness is caused by his love for his daughter Ophelia. Hamlet arranges a troupe of actors to play The Murder of Gonzago, a similar story to the one revealed by the ghost, at the court.
        
        Hamlet's father, the King of Denmark appears as a ghost to sentries at Elsinore, armed for a possible attack of Fortinbras, Prince of Norway. Hamlet and his friend Horatio arrange a night meeting, during which the ghost tells Hamlet he was murdered by his brother Claudius, who now married his wife Gertrude and became king. Claudius poured some poison in his ear while he was sleeping in his orchard. He asks Hamlet to avenge him, but to leave his mother's punishment to heaven.
        
        SETTING:
        
        late Middle Ages (14th-15th cent.)
        
        royal castle in Elsinore, Denmark
        
        Hamlet studies in Germany
        
        Wittenberg, where Martin Luther started the Protestant Reformation
        
        HAMLET
        
        Desire and Interpretation of Desire in Hamlet - Jacques Lacan (1901-81)
        
        Ambiguity of his language
        
        2 more items...
        
        his main feeling: MELANCHOLY
        
        everything loses its appeal
        
        THEMES
        
        Death
        
        1 more item...
        
        Politics
        
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        Doubt
        
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        Oedipus complex
        
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        Revenge
        
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        Misogyny
        
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  - - - DRAMATIC STRUCTURE:
        
        Act 1: COMEDY. The secret marriage between Othello and Desdemona, the typical comic heroine
        
        Act 2: TRAGEDY. Othello turns into a tragic character and Desdemona gradually becomes speechless
        
        PLOT:
        
        Othello, a Moorish military leader, marries Desdemona, the daugther of the Venetian nobleman Brabantio. Brabantio accuses Othello of witchcraft, but after the trial in the Senate of Venice, Othello is freed and is sent to Cyprus to face the Turkish attack.
        
        Othello chooses Cassio as lieutenant and passes over Iago, who has more military experience. Iago decides to destroy both men and Desdemona. To do so, he convinces Othello that Desdemona has been unfaithful with Cassio.
        
        Othello, upset, kills the wife but, when he realises what he has done, he kills himself. "one that loved not wisely but too well (Othello before stabbing himself).
        
        THEMES
        
        Sexuality
        
        16th century anxieties about miscegenation
        
        Gender
        
        Male characters assume that Venetian women are promiscous
        
        Race
        
        Othello is always depicted in terms of racial stereotypes
        
        Manipulation
        
        Iago as a master of deception
        
        Jealousy
        
        Othello's but also Iago's one
      - Hecatommithi - Giraldi Cynthio (1565) short stories about married love
      - A Geographical Historie of Africa - Leo Africanus (1600)
  - - - Lear, King of Britain, abdicates in favour of his 3 daughters and decides to divide his reign according to the love they are able to express towards him.
        
        Goneril and Regan proclaim their hypocritical love, while Cordelia says she will divide her love between his father and her future husband. Lear, angry, banishes her from his reign.
        
        Meanwhile, the Count of Gloucester is convinced by his bastard son Edmund that his legitimate son Edgar is a traitor.
        
        Both fathers are finally punished with blindness: the Count becomes blind, and Lear goes mad because he realises his error. At the end, both fathers are helped by the children they have banished.
        
        The play closes with the death of both Cordelia and Lear
      - THEMES
        
        Conflict between
        
        violence vs. love
        
        truth vs. falseness
        
        power vs. loyalty
  - - - First Act
        
        'Fair is foul, and foul is fair' (3 witches). The attempted invasion of Scotland by the Norwegians, helped by the traitor Thane of Cawdor, failed thanks to Macbeth. Macbeth and Banquo meet 3 witches who greet the former as Thane of Cawdor and say that he will become King of Scotland, while Banquo will be the father of a line of kings. So, the ambitious Macbeth invites Duncan, King of Scotland, to his castle and informs his wife of the prophecy. Lady Macbeth carries out a plan to kill Duncan.
        
        Second Act
        
        Macbeth kills Duncan and blames the King's servants. Malcolm and Donalbain (Duncan's sons) leave Scotland. Macbeth becomes King but Macduff and Banquo are suspicious.
        
        Third Act
        
        Macbeth decides to kill Banquo and his son Fleance because of the second prophecy, but Fleance escapes and Banquo's ghost haunts Macbeth
        
        Fourth Act
        
        The 3 witches warn Macbeth to beware of Macduff (who escaped to England with Malcolm). Macbeth orders to kill Macduff's wife and children
        
        Fifth Act
        
        Lady Macbeth went insane and walks in her sleep, trying to wash away Duncan's blood from her hands. She commits suicide. Meanwhile Malcolm is marching to Scotland with an army. Macduff kills Macbeth (because he was not 'born of woman' but via caesarian section and this aligns with the witches' prophecy, that said that he would be defeated when Birnam Wood comes to Dunsinane) and the play ends with Macduff holding up Macbeth's head and proclaiming Malcolm king of Scotland.
      - SETTING
        
        Scotland in the 11th century
        
        Macbeth's castle in Inverness and the palace in Dunsinane (where there is danger and foulness and where the murders are committed) in contrast with the moors, the meeting place for the witches (apparently foul but where only true prophecies are delivered)
        
        CHARACTERS
        
        Macbeth
        
        a tragic hero, a respected soldier who dies because of his own ambition and whose death is a consequence of his choices
        
        gradual de-humanisation, he is not able to feel emotions
        
        the reaction to his wife's death: 'She should have died hereafter ... Life's but a walking shadow ...a tale told by an idiot'
        
        Lady Macbeth
        
        she shows great strength of will in the first part of the play, especially when Macbeth comes back upset from the murder. But gradually she goes insane and dies.
        
        The witches
        
        represent the potential for evil in the human imagination
        
        THEMES
        
        FALSE APPEARANCES
        
        theme of equivocation
        
        TIME
        
        As time goes by, there are images connected with growth (babies, seeds, plants, trees). Time is pre-ordaines and cannot be changed by any human action
        
        THE REVERSAL OF VALUES
        
        Fair is foul, and foul is fair
        
        DARKNESS
        
        The sun shines only twice, while the night is only interrupted by red flashes, connected with blood. The words blood, bloody and to bleed are repeated hundreds of times.
        
        REGICIDE
        
        an act against nature that brings chaos and terrible weather
        
        STYLE
        
        Use of imagery
        
        Duncan= social harmony
        
        After Duncan's murder : exceptional natural events