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M3_How does critical pedagogy reveal and confront the role that schooling…

- - - - Dual systems never addressed gross inequities, even after Brown v. Board (1954).
      - Further, even as HBU's and similar institutions arose, there were not many opportunities for Mexican American students.
      - "Separateness was strongly entrenched against racial minorities, enforced by structural differentiation across the country" (Nobia-Rios, 2019)
    - - 1926 - The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) is first administered. It is based on the Army Alpha test. During this time, IQ tests were used to enforce racial stereotypes and keep marginalized people out of institutions of higher education
        
        IQ testing was greatly flawed and is highly biased. It has been utilized for subjugation in the name of scientific and educational progress, providing an excuse for racism and excluding students from education. The system excluded both Black and Mexican American students both by design and by default.
        
        Students were easily categorized which perpetuated racial stereotypes and segregation.
      - 1917 - IQ testing was used to support segregation by claiming that intelligence was divided along racial lines. These tests kept marginalized people out of higher education and perpetuated systems of poverty and inequity.
  - - - Education is a priority for wealthy, White males. As the nation progressed, education was seen as a means to democracy, which is why it excluded all but the class in power. Democracy - Thomas Jefferson, amongst others, supported the creation of a public education system as a means to sustain democracy for White men.
        
        1565 - the first school is established in the states 1635 - Boston Latin School established. Designated for sons of certain social classes to be leaders in church, state, or courts
        
        1635 - The first "free school" opens in Virginia; however, education in the south was primarily provided by private tutors.
        
        Jefferson pushes for public education for White males. Only the most privileged are able to attend school.
        
        1642 - Massachusetts Bay School Law requires that parents ensure that their children know the principles of religion and the capital laws of the commonwealth
        
        1827 - Massachusetts passes a law requiring towns of more than 500 families to have a public high school open to all White male students
        
        1647 - The Massachusetts Law of 1647 requires towns of at least 50 families to have a teacher to educate through experience
        
        1827 - Massachusetts passes a law requiring all towns of more than 500 families to have a public high school open to "all" students
        
        Webster encourages patriotism throughout the revolution by writing texts that encourage "American" curriculum, rather than British history and education practices. This new curriculum helped form a stronger identity amongst the colonists during and after the revolution.
        
        During the war, former President Roosevelt moved for an “English-only” curriculum - intended to create “Americans.”
      - 1837 - Horace Mann becomes Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education. Mann is known as a visionary and proponent of public (or "free") schools
      - 1909 - In order to improve high school graduation rates, the Columbus Ohio School Board authorizes the creation of junior high schools
      - 1862 - The First Morrill Act is passed. The act It donates public lands to states, the sale of which will be used for the "endowment, support, and maintenance of at least one college where the leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life."
        
        1890 - The Second Morrill Act is enacted. It provides for the "more complete endowment and support of the colleges" through the sale of public lands, Part of this funding leads to the creation of 16 historically black land-grant colleges.
      - 1698 - The first public library is founded in South Carolina. This laws some groundwork for funding public schools
        
        1874 - Michigan State Supreme Court rules that cities may tax citizens to help fund education, starting a precedent for similar future rulings.
    - - POC Populations
        
        1837 - The African Institute is founded in Pennsylvania, the first institution of higher learning for African Americans
        
        1867 - Howard University is established in Washington D.C. to provide education for African American youth "in the liberal arts and sciences.” Early financial support is provided by the Freedmen's Bureau.
        
        1854 - Ashmun Institute is founded as the first institution in the world to provide higher education in multiple fields to African American males
        
        In the case of Roberts v. City of Boston (1849), the Massachusetts Supreme Court rules that the Boston Public Schools can deny enrolment of African American children to segregated, "whites-only" schools.
        
        1879 - The first Indian boarding school opens with the goal of assimilation
        
        Indian Education Act (1972) is enacted to meet the "unique needs of American Indian and Alaska Native students."
        
        1978 - Tribally Controlled Community College Act
        
        2021 - Secretary of the Interior Deb Haaland, the first indigenous person to hold the position, announces an investigation into boarding schools following the discovery of the remains of over 1500 indigenous children on the grounds of multiple schools in Canada
        
        Desegregation
        
        1931 - Alvarez vs. the Board of Trustees of the Lemon Grove (California) School District becomes the first successful school desegregation court case in the United States, as the local court forbids the school district from placing Mexican-American children in a separate "Americanization" school.
        
        1946 - In the landmark court case of Mendez vs. Westminster and the California Board of Education, the U. S. District Court in Los Angeles rules that educating children of Mexican descent in separate facilities is unconstitutional, thus prohibiting segregation in California schools and setting an important precedent for Brown vs. Board of Education.
        
        2011 - Sylvia Mendez, who's parents were lead plaintiffs in Mendez v. Westminster and the California Board of Education, is awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom
        
        Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
        
        Roberts v. City of Boston (1849)
        
        Brown v. Board (1954)
        
        Milliken v. Bradley (1974)
        
        Sheff v. O'Neill (1989)
      - Women
        
        1823 - Catherine Beecher founds the Hartford Female Seminary,
        
        1837 - Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, the first college for women in the U.S.
        
        1855 - University of Iowa becomes the first state university to admit men and women on an equal basis
        
        1972 - Dartmouth becomes the last Ivy to start allowing women
      - Special Education
        
        1848 - Experimental School for Teaching and Training Idiotic Children, the first school of its kind in the U.S.
        
        1851 - New York Asylum for Idiots
        
        1853 - Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble-Minded Children,
        
        1939 - Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is published
        
        1869 - first public school for the deaf
        
        1973 - The Rehabilitation Act
        
        Sction 504 guarantees civil rights for people with disabilities in the context of federally funded institutions
        
        Section 504 is now used for students who do not qualify for special education or an IEP
        
        1975 - Education of All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142)
        
        1990 - The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
        
        2004 - H.R. 1350, The Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Act (IDEA 2004),
        
        2007 - American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD)
        
        2008 - The Higher Education Opportunity Act - expands funding and loan eligibility for people with cognitive disabilities and other federal financial aid programs.
- - - - 1892 - Formed by the National Education Association to establish a standard secondary school curriculum, the Committee of Ten, recommends a college-oriented high school curriculum.
      - 1914 - The Smith-Lever Act establishes a system of cooperative extension services connected to land grant universities, provides federal funds for extension activities, and nationalizes 4-H.
      - CCSS: The Common Core State Standards Initiative, "a state-led effort coordinated by the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and the Council of Chief State School Officers," is launched. It is expected that many, perhaps most, states will adopt them.
      - 1991 - Minnesota passes the first "charter school" law, followed by the opening of the nation's first charter school in 1992.
    - - Developmental Psychology
        
        1903 - Pavlov publishes The Experimental Psychology and Psychopathology of Animals, which details findings on conditioning
        
        1920 - John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner conduct experiments on Classical Conditioning
        
        1953 - Skinner publishes Science and Human Behavior, detailing behaviorism and operant conditioning
        
        1956 - Bloom's Taxonomy
        
        1962 - Vygotsky publishes Thought and Language which becomes the foundation for social constructivist theories and the "Zone of Proximal Development"
        
        1966 - Jerome Bruner's Toward a Theory of Instruction is published. His views regarding learning help to popularize the cognitive learning theory as an alternative to behaviorism.
        
        Jean Piaget publishes The Science of Education (1970), implementing the learning cycle model.
        
        Herbert R. Kohl publishes The Open Classroom (1969), emphasizing student-centered learning
        
        James Banks' Multicultural Education: Transformative Knowledge and Action (1996)
      - Early Influences
        
        Enlightenment - Locke's tabula rasa influences American education, knowledge is learned, not innate.
        
        1690 - Locke publishes Essay Concerning Human Understanding
        
        1693 - Locke publishes Some Thoughts Concerning Education
        
        1697 - Locke publishes On Working Schools which promotes education centered around work ethic
        
        Franklin then helps establish the first "English Academy" in Philadelphia (U Penn) with a curriculum that is both classical and modern. The expanded curriculum included courses such as history, geography, navigation, surveying, and modern as well as classical languages
    - - Reagan intends to remove the Department of Education (1980), which had recently become a Cabinet level agency; however, by the end of his presidency, more funding was given to the Department of Education after it was noticed that the United States was falling far behind other countries.
  - - - The Massachusetts Bay School Law (1642) is passed, requiring parents educate children on the principles of religion and the capital laws of the commonwealth.
      - Mindset Shift: William Holmes McGuffey's publishes The McGuffey Readerswith a secular tone that separates them from common Puritan texts (1836).
        
        Tennessee vs. John Scopes (1925) ("the Monkey Trial") captures national attention as John Scopes, a high school biology teacher, is charged with the heinous crime of teaching evolution, which is in violation of the Butler Act, The trial ends in Scopes' conviction.
        
        McCollum v. Board of Education (1948), the Supreme Court rules that schools cannot allow "released time" during the school day which allows students to participate in religious education in their public school classrooms.
        
        Epperson et al. v. Arkansas (1968) finds that prohibiting the teaching of evolution in a public school is unconstitutional.
        
        Engel v. Vitale (1962) - prayer violates the First Amendment, specifying that state officials may not recite prayer before class
        
        Wallace v. Jaffree (1984).
        
        Santa Fe School District v. Doe (2000)
        
        McCollum v. Board of Education (1948) prevents schools from allowing students to participate in any religious education in public school classrooms.
        
        Edwards v. Aguillard (1982) - teaching creationism violates the Establishment Clause.
        
        Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District (2005) - schools cannot teach "Intelligent Design," either.
        
        School District of Abington Township, PA v. Schempp (1963) and Murray v. Curlett (1963) both reaffirm Engel v. Vitale ruling that "no state law or school board may require that passages from the Bible be read or that the Lord's Prayer be recited in public schools... even if individual students may be excused from attending or participating" (1963).
    - - 1868 -In spite of opposition by southern states, the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified and becomes law. It guarantees privileges of citizenship including due process and equal protection under the law including the right to vote for freed male slaves. It becomes the basis for the rulings in Brown v. Board of Education and Pyler v. Doe as well as many other important court cases.
      - In 1877, reconstruction formally ended as President Rutherford B. Hayes removes the last federal troops from the south. The end of reconstruction perpetuated racial stereotyping and laid a foundation for systemic segregation and discrimination in the South.
      - 1849 - In the case of Roberts v. City of Boston, the Massachusetts Supreme Court rules that the Boston Public Schools can deny enrolment of African American children to segregated, "whites-only" schools. The case is later cited as a precedent for the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) ruling.
      - Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) is overturned by Brown v. Board (1954)
    - - ESEA is reauthorized in 1994 with the Improving America's Schools Act (IASA)
        
        Reauthorized again by No Child Left Behind in 2001. This law also replaced the Bilingual Education Act of 1968
  - - - 1965 - Lyndon Johnson signs the Immigration Act of 1965, also known as the Hart-Cellar ActIt abolishes the National Origins Formula and results in unprecedented numbers of Asians and Latin Americans immigrating to the United States, making America's classrooms much more diverse.
        
        Policy Changes
        
        National Association of Bilingual Education founded (1975)
        
        Emergency Immigrant Education Act (1984)
        
        The Immigration and Nationality Act (1990).
        
        Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996
        
        1994 - Proposition 187 i s passed in California, limiting rights and benefits of undocumented citizens.
        
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        Plyler v. Doe (1982).
        
        Alabama becomes the first state "to require public schools to check the immigration status" of students (2011) Though the law does not require schools to prohibit the enrollment nor report the names of undocumented children, opponents nevertheless contend it is unconstitutional based on the Plyler v. Doe (1982) ruling.
        
        the U.S. Supreme Court rules in a 5-4 decision that Texas law denying access to public education for undocumented school-age children violates the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. The ruling also found that school districts cannot charge tuition fees for the education of these children.
        
        1980 - The Refugee Act of 1980
        
        Diana v. California State Board (1970).
        
        Lau v. Nicols (1974).
        
        1974 - The Equal Educational Opportunities Act