Respiratory system
Used for gas exchange/breathing
The process of inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide
Parts of the system
Every day the body breaths about 20 000 times
When oxygen is passed from the alveoli to the air sacs, it is released into the blood stream.
By the time the age of 70 is reached we breath about 600 million breaths.
Nostrils and nose
Bring air into the nose to be filtered warmed and moistened
Hairs called cilia protect the respiratory system from possible dust and pollen particles that may be trying to get in.
Mouth
Used to inhale air
Pharynx
where airways converge
carries food and air
used for digestion and respiration
Trachea/windpipe
One path for food (oesophagus)
One path air (trachea)
Takes air to lungs
Epiglottis
Covers trachea when swallowing food to avoid cholking.
Larynx
Vocal cords
At the top of the trachea
Has stiff walls of cartilage rings to keep it open.
12cm long
Lined with tiny hairs
catch foreign particles out of the airway.
Branches off into one of the two lungs and continues to branch like a tree.
Bronchioles
Small branches of the windpipe which are inside the lungs.
Alveoli
Look a bit like grapes
Are at the ends of the bronchioles
they are air sacs
surrounded by tiny blood vessels called capillaries
At the same time, carbon dioxide is passed from the bloodstream into the air sacs. It is then breathed out of the body.
Exercise
The body needs more oxygen to feed working muscles when exercising. This is why we breath more heavily and a lot more often when we are exercising.
Exercising helps to grow our chest cavity, increasing the amount of air we are able to take in.
Exercising forms more capillaries around the air sacs making the transition of the o2 and co2 from the blood to the air sacs a lot quicker.
capillaries transfer the oxygen and co2
Voice box
Cardio Vascular system
Consists of heart and blood vessels
Keeps us alive
pumps blood throughout the body
Oxygen rich blood is transferred from the lungs to the left side of the heart.
The left side of the heart pumps the blood around the body through the aorta
oxygen poor blood is transferred from the right side of the heart to the lungs, through the pulminary arteries, where it is refreshed
Heart
Veins carry blood back to heart
arteries carry blood away from heart
aterioles
venules
capillaries connect veins and arteries
Top is called inferior
bottom is called inferior
Really big vein - vena cava
biggest artery - aorta
the right side of the heart pumps blood too and from the lungs and heart
More muscular
Blood
Red blood cells
Carry oxygen
Plasma
Liquid that contains carbon dioxide
White blood cells
Travels to bacteria to kill them
Leave after bacteria is dead
Platelets
Cell fragments that fill holes in blood vessels
Help to stop the bleeding when you cut yourself
Carries other cells
background facts
Located slightly left of centre in the chest
divided into 2 sides
right side (on left in diagram)
Left side (on right in diagram)
this prevents oxygen rich and poor blood from mixing
The heart pumps an average of 5 quarts of blood per minute
The heart beats around 100,000 times per day
this is 35 million beats per year
Valves keep the blood moving the right way
Pulmonary valve
Aortic valve
Tricuspid valve
between left ventricle and aorta
Mitral valve
between right ventricle and pulmonary valve
Between right atrium and right ventricle
Between left atrium and left ventricle
Beating heart
contracts and relaxes
Contract
systole
relax
diastole
ventricles contract
forcing blood through vessels that go to the lungs and around the body (pulmonary artery and aorta.
right ventricle contracts a little bit before the left ventricle
Ventricles relax
filled with blood coming from the atriums
covered with blood vessels called coronary arteries
these branch into smaller vessels called capilaries
Electrical impulses go through specific pathways to the ventricles
signalling for the heart to pump
Pathway of blood
body
superior or inferior vena cava
right atrium
tricuspid valve
right ventricle
pulmonary artery (splits into 2 vessels)
lungs
pulmonary veins
left atrium
mitral valve
left ventricle
Aorta
Body
Main arteries
aorta
pulmonary artery
Renal artery
Hepatic artery
delivers oxygenated blood with a high level of urea to the kidneys so that it can be cleaned/filtered.
carries oxygenated blood to the liver.
Main veins
Pulmonary veins
vena cava
Hepatic portal vein
transports blood full of unbalanced amounts of nutrients from digestive system to the liver.
Hepatic vein
carries blood with a regulated amount of nutrients, from the liver into circulation.
Renal vein
clean blood with a regulated amount of urea is returned from the kidneys into circulation
Other body parts
Kidneys
remove wastes and control water levels.
Reduce urea concentration
Liver
regulates the composition of blood before it enters circulation
combines the oxygenated blood with nutrients from food
Gut
Digests food to send nutrients into the liver
Exercise
regular physical activity can lower risk of heart and circulatory disiease by 35%
heat produced by muscels makes you warm
Heart pumps faster
Heart is a muscle
breathe faster
more capillaries form
grows as you are more active
improve memory and attention span
long term physical activity leads to lower heart rate (resting)
brain produces endorphyns
Blood pressure
pressure that blood exerts against arteries as it is pumped through the body
Heart rate
number of times the heart beats per minute
Each time that the heart pumps, blood is pushed through the aterial system with force
decreases in resting time
Systolic pressure measures the left ventricle during systole
Diastolic pressure measures the time after the ventricles contract and the chambers of the heart are refilling with blood (during diastole).
adult average = 60 to 100bpm
Lower resting rate typically means that the heart is more efficient
more fit
athletes can have a resting rate of 40bpm
Breathing rate
exercising makes muscles work harder
body needs more oxygen
produces more carbon dioxide
increased breathing
from 15 times per minute (12 litres of air)
to around 40 - 60 times per minute
resting
during exercise
body produces sweat to cool down
stops you from overheating
Skeletal system
What?
made up of bones and cartilage
supports body
gives body structure
facilitates movement
protects internal organs
produces blood cells
stores and releases minerals and fat
Made of?
Bone
a hard dense connective tissue that forms the adult skeleton
Cartilage
provides flexibility and smooth surfaces for movement
Movement?
Bones act as levers
joints act like fulcrums
ligaments
ligaments connect bones to bones and are made up of flexible tissue to help us move
Muscular system
Musculoskeletal system
What?
responsible for the movement of the human body
muscles are made of a type of elastic tissue
like the material of an elastic band
Muscle
Cardiac
in the heart
Visceral/smooth
in the organs and blood vessels
Skeletal
attached to the bones
involuntary
involuntary
Voluntary
Movement?
tendons
strong bands of connective tissue.
strong collagen fibres attach muscles to bones
Skeletal muslces
usually work in pairs to create movement
one of the muscles contracts/shortens
agonist
the other muscle relaxes/lengthens
antagonist
muscles that work like this are called antagonistic pairs
LEVERS
skeletal muscles work together with bones and joints to form lever systems
there are three classes of levers
in the body, a lever is made up of the following (most are third class)
Effort: muscle
Fulcrum: joint
load: object being moved
lever: bone that the muscle moves
third class levers
increase the distance moved by the load compared to the distance that the muscle contracts.
also known as speed multipliers
force required to move the load must be greater than the mass of the load
second class levers are called force multipliers
ankle joint
Levers
work (measured in joules) is equal to force applied over a distance.
law of physics
a lever is balanced when
force1 x distance 1 = force 2 x distance 2
Levers
Principle of moments
moment
turning effect generated when the effort is applied to a lever to rotate it on the fulcrum
The moment depends on the size of the effort and its distance from the fulcrum.
force x distance
mechanical advantage
mechanical advantage = load/effort
velocity ratio
the ratio of a distance through which any part of a machine moves to that which the driving part moves during the same time.
velocity ratio = distance moved by effort/distance moved by load
Injuries
Ligaments and tendons
Why?
Lack of warm-up before stretching or exercise
Improper use of sporting or exercise equipment
Overdoing of exerting oneself in a specific sport in a short period of time
Lack of, or improper training
Can occur when our bodies are put under forces or stresses which they were not designed to cope with.
Inflammation
a protective response by the body to something harmful
How
toxins
physical harm
bacteria
viruses
allergies
stress/trauma
some foods
For example
You get a cut
white blood cells produce histamine
blood plasma enters tissue area
tells capillaries to open up
slows down foreign invadors
white blood cells release cytocynes
causes swelling
calls more white blood cells to the area
the white blood cells enter the tissue
fight foreign invadors
What
result of inflammatory response is the destruction of foreign invaders and damaged tissue.
types of inflammation
acute
good
chronic
bad
develops commonly from an autoimmune disorder
occurs when the body reacts in order to fight off a foreign substance but there is actually nothing there which causes the body to destroy its own tissue.
helps to keep foreign substances away
ACL Injury
what
tear or sprain of the anterior cruciate ligament
major ligament in the knee
how
commonly occur during sports that involve sudden stops or changes in direction, jumping and landing
soccer, basketball, football and downhill skiing.
many people hear a pop in their knee which they tear their ACL
Can also occur from a direct blow to the knee
Lachmans test
Is there more movement than the unaffected side
Can you feel the ligament restricting movement
this is known as the ‘endfeel’. At times, it can be hard to determine the ligaments integrity, but as an experienced therapist you get to know the sensation of a ruptured ligament well
Nervous system
Receptors detect stimuli
Senses
Eyes
Photoreception: detection of light, perceived as sight.
Vision
Ears
Mechano-reception: detection of vibration, perceived as hearing
Hearing
Skin
Mechano-reception: detection of pressure, perceived as touch.
touch
Nose
Chemoreception: detection of chemical stimuli, perceived as smell
Smell
Tongue
Chemoreception: detection of chemical stimuli, perceived as taste
Taste
There are 3 parts
Outer (pinna or auricle)
Middle
Inner
acts like a funnel to channel sound waves into the ear canal
Ear wax is produced in the ear canal. It contains chemicals to kill germs and prevent infection.
Ear drum is in here
a thin piece of tightly stretched skin
soundwaves collected by the outer ear cause it to vibrate
as it vibrates it moves a set of three bones on the other side
when it vibrates it moves 3 tiny bones on the others side (ossicles)
Hammer
Anvil
Stirrup
ossicle bones are connected to the cochlea
small tube filled with liquid.
vibrating ossicles create waves in liquid in cochlea
cochlea is lined with tiny hairs in basilar membrane
waves move the hairs which create nerve signals that are sent to the brain
the brain understands these signals as sound
Talking
The front of the tongue is flexible and is used to create a variety of sounds that are used to talk.
Eat
click to edit
moves food around the mouth while you chew, pushing food to the back teeth.
without saliva you cant taste anything because the tongue is too dry
papillae
bumbs on tongue
contain taste buds
the average person contains 10, 000 taste buds
detects sweet, sour, salty and bitter
without the noses smelling power you cant taste much
parts
Cornea
protective layer that focuses light
iris
muscles control the iris right behind the cornea that contracts and relaxes causing the pupil to grow and shrink
when it is dark the iris makes your pupil wider so more light can be let in
lens
focuses the light into the back of the eye
can focus on near and far
held in place by fibres that are attached to the ciliary muscles
ciliary muscles change the focus of the lens
it makes lens thicker to see close and thinner to see far
retina
back wall of the eye
has millions of light sensitive cells called rods and cones
120 million Rods
7 million cones
black and white and shades of grey
help to see in dark
helps to see shapes and forms
sensitive to primary colours
red, green, blue
these make up billions of colours
need more light to see
optic nerve
blind spot of the eye
carries messages to the brain
they turn light into electric nerve messages
brain translates messages
3 layers
epidermis
dermis
subcutaneous fat
skin cell factory
contains melanin
new cells are being made all of the time at the bottom
they slowly make their way up to the surface
takes them 4 weeks to make their way to the top
they are dead by the time they reach the surface
a person is constantly shedding skin cells
more melanin = darker skin
melanin helps to protect you from the sun
blood vessels
nerve endings
read sensations that touch the skin
the nerves send messages through the nervous system to the brain
the brain will respond depending on the sensation
e.g if something is hot the brain tells you to stop touching it
oil glands (sebaceous glands)
connected to hair follicle
send a sticky substance called sebum up to the epidermis and to the surface
oil protects and moistens skin
sweat glands
start in dermis in small knots
produce sweat that travels up tot surface
sweat comes out of pores
used to cushion the outer layer and protect the bones and organs
keeps the body warm
hair follicles starts in the subcutaneous fats
near the base of the hair erector pili (muscles) tighten when the body is cold
this pulls the hair straighter and traps heat
pilomotor reflex (creates goose bumps)
when cold they become small to keep warm blood away from cold surface and vice-versa
evaporates to cool the skin
entrance = nostrils
septum separates nostrils
nasal passage
nasal cavity
trachea
lungs
warms, moistens and filters the air
inside is lined with moist tissue called mucus membrane
mucus/snot + nose hairs = filter
dried mucus + dirt = booger in nose hair
sneezes shoot unwanted particles out of the nose at up to 100 miles an hour
olfactory epithelium
contains receptors
send signals along olfactory nerve
olfactory bulb
brain
stimuli
any information that the body receives that might cause it to respond
receptors receive stimuli
receptors send messages to the brain
e.g if receptors feel thirsty and hot, the brain will respond by telling the body to drink water
Smell is the first sense you use when born
1 out of every 50 of your genes are dedicated to it
An adult can distinguish 10000 different smells
Odor molecules
trapped in mucus at back of nasal cavity
olfactory epithelium
dissolve and go through olfactory receptor cells
olfactory tract
brain
Olfactory epithelium
size gives idea on animals sense of smell
dogs ones are 20 times bigger than a human's
recognising different smells
brain has 40 million different receptor neurons
different odours trigger different nuerons
olfactory neuron only neuron that gets replaced regularly
every 3-8 weeks
olfactory neurons pass through olfactory tract
stopping off at different parts of the brain
amygdala
thalamus
neocortex
sight and sound go to a relay centre in the middle before being sent to different parts of the brain
Everyone smells things differently
anosmia
100 known examples
inability to smell a scent
some people cant smell anything
as you chew the smell of the food goes from inside your mouth to the olfactory epithelium. Taste relys on smell
connects olfactory bulb to the cerebral cortex
vitreous humour
a jelly like fluid that gives the eye shape and keeps it strong
aqueous humour
liquid infront of the puil that focuses light and protects the eye
gives eye nutrients
Blood vessels
carry nutrients and oxygen into the vitreous humour
ciliary body
produces aqueous humour
part of middle layer of wall of eye
includes muscle that changes shape and length of iris
Sclera
white of the eye
Conjunctiva
mucous membrane that covers the inside of the eyelids and sclera
Choroid
part of the middle layer of the outer eye
between sclera and retina
supplies outer retina with nutrients
controls temperature of the eye
gives eye volume
macular
in charge of central vision
SEE ABOVE
in brain
Body system
senses environment
controls action
2 main divisions
central nervous system (CNS)
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
brain
spinal cord
bundles of nerves
co-ordinator
makes sense of messages received by sense organs
co-ordinates responses
muscles
glands
relay messages between
sense organs
central nervous system
muscles
glands
spread through entire body like branches
Neurons
specialised cells/nerves
transmit messages
in the form of electrical signals
to, from and within CENTRAL nervous system
wires of a circuit
structure
different roles but still the same structure
cell body
nucleus
dendrites
branches that receive messages
axon
thread-like structure
carries impulses to other neurons
myelin sheath
fatty layer
sometimes insulates dendrite
Types
sensory
transmit messages
interneurons
transmit messages from sensory neurons to motor neurons
motor neurons
transmit messages from central nervous system to effectors
muscle cells
glands
to initiate a respons
made up of different types of neurons
Stimulus response
nerve cells
Organells
located in cell body
controls involuntary actions
breathing
controls voluntary actions
moving
also called nerve fibre
only travels in one direction
sent down axon
to axon terminal
covers axon
insulates axon
helps speed up signal
nodes of raniver
specialized axonal segments
lack myelin
signal jumps between nodes
regulates neuron excitability
called soma
highly sensitive
receive info
from previous neurons axon terminals
do not touch the axon terminal of proceeding neuron
synapse
small gap between 2 neurons
synaptic gap
special chemicals are released
axon terminal
move across synaptic gap
bind to dendrites
continues nerve signal
called neurotransmitters
If a neurotransmitter is "leaking" then specialised enzymes destroy the faulty transmitter
protein based
aka afferent
sensory organ
central nervous system
connecter neurons
they detect
most common neuron in the body
aka efferent
cell body doesn't have dendrites
Schwann cells
secrete myelin
Stimulus
receptor
control centre
nerves
hormones
effector
response
reflexes
involuntary action
act without thinking
automatic action
sensory neuron carries the message from receptor to spinal cord
interneuron sends 2 messages
brain
muscles
via motor neurons
muscles are moving at same time that brain receives message
characteristics
electro-chemical signals
very quick
up to 119 m/s
specific destination of signal
may be infuluntary
Receptors
Chemoreceptors
sensitive to chemicals
odour
food flavours
Mechanoreceptors
sensitive to touch
located in
pressure
sound
motion
located in
nose
tongue
skin
inner ear
muscles
pain receptors
sensitive to chemical changes in damaged cells
located in
all throughout the body
mostly in skin
Thermoreceptors
sensitive to temperature changes
located in
skin
Photoreceptors
sensitive to light
located in
eyes
(effectors are muscles or glands)
receptors transmit CHEMICAL message to sensory neuron
stimulus response pathway
receptor
detects stimulus
sensory neuron
co-ordinator
motor neuron
brain and spinal cord
effector
response
muscles and glands
if a "pathway" for a specific smell (for example) is built a lot of times then the brain will easily recognise the odour
reflex arc
pathway that the message takes to make a reflex
Structure
Frontal lobe
emotions
reasoning
movement
problem solving
Parietal lobe
Perception of senses
Temporal lobe
recognition of sound and smells
Occipital lobe
Vision
largest lobe
parts
cerebrum
biggest part
thinking
controls voluntary muscles
store memories
make feelings and emotions possible
by weight
more than 85% of brain
split into 2 halves
right side of cerebrum controls left
left side controls right
brain stem
connect brain to spinal cord
located at base of brain
spinal cord
bundle of cords protected by spine
main pathway for information to flow from brain to rest of body
in charge of function body needs to stay alive
breathing
circulating blood
digesting food
corpus callosum
bridge in brain
thick band of nerve fibres that connect 2 halves of the brain
cerebellum
at the back of brain
controls balance and coordination
comprised of grey matter
hypothalamus
below thalamus
above pituitary gland
size of an almone
directly above brain stem at base of brain
"smart control coordinating centre"
keeps body stable in homeostasis
manages hormones
autonomic nervous system
2 parts
outside of cns
carries information to and from cns
somatic nervous system
controls voluntary skeletal muscle movements
waving
autonomic nervous system
breathing
heartbeat
digestion
salivation
perspiration
comprised of 2 parts
sympathetic
parasympathetic
work in opposition
parasympathetic decreases heart rate
sympathetic heart rate increases heart rate
endocrine gland
related to growth and nutrition
prepares for action
fight or flight
calms body
conserves energy
temperature regulation
hydration
hormones to the kidneys
hormones to regulate temperature and sweating
dilates blood vessels
behavioural responses
taking off jumper etc...
cause voltage to be sent through ion channels
protein molecules within the cell membrane which allow charges to flow through
Endocrine system
What
Collection of glands
Works slowly
produce hormones
regulate metabolism
regulate growth
regulate development
(Chemical signals)
move through blood stream
Endocrine glands
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus
Adrenal glands
Endocrine glands
Pineal gland
Thryroid
Pancreas
Ovary
Testicles
makes hormones
control pituitary gland secretions
stored in pituitary gland
makes hormones
regulate many other endocrine glands
4 glands
parathyroid hormones
regulate blood calcium levels
During childhood
releases thymosin
stimulates T-cell development
tcells
immune system
stem cells in bone marrow
epinephrine
non-epinephrine
help body to deal with stress
melatonin
involved in rhythmic activities
sleep-wake cycles
circadian cycles
thyroxine
regulates metabolism
insulin
decreases blood glucose
estrogen
progesterone
development of
secondary sex characteristics
eggs
breasts
pubic hair
period
prepares uterus for a fertilised egg
testosterone
responsible for
sperm production
male secondary sex characteristics
pubic hair
facial hair
Master gland
Growth Hormone (GH)
too much = gigantism
too little = dwarfism
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
stimulates kidneys to keep water
digestive enzymes
help speed up digestion
beta cells
Glucagon
Alpha cells
increases blood glucose
Type 1 diabeties
autoimmune disease
immune system destroys its own beta cells
Homeostasis
Balance among all body systems to stay alive
Hormones
all multicellular organisms produce one kind or another of hormones.
hormones give instructions and regulate levels in bodily systems
Nervous systems = messages quickly but short lived
Endocrine system = messages slowly but long-lasting (up to weeks)
Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands (glands in the body)
Exocrine glands: salivary glands, sweat glands
Glands are everywhere
general effects
specific effects
target a second gland, causing it to release its hormones
increases heart rate
shuts down digestion
makes energy available to muscles
makes cells consume more oxygen and nutrients
regulates body temperature
thyroid stimulating hormone
stimulates thyroid hormone production
follicle stimulating production
stimulates egg production in females
stimulates sperm production in males
Target cells have receptors that can easily receive the hormone like a puzzle
increasing body temperature
hormonal thermogenesis
thyroid gland
releases hormones to increase metabolism
increases energy that body creates
therefore increases amount of heat it produces
also involved in nervous system
can cause the body to have:
heart attacks
nerve damage
Diabetes
feedback mechanism
A stimulus creates a change that is detected by a receptor (sensor), this sends a signal to the control centre, which coordinates a response and sends a signal (communication through hormones or nerves) to the effector which then responds (does something) to return the body to homeostasis.
Homeostasis
The process of maintaining a constant internal environment when faced with changing external conditions
involves keeping the internal environment within set ranges
Body works most efficiently when the internal environment is reasonably constant.
temperature
water content
available energy
available oxygen
concentration of wastes in the blood are all controlled
To maintain homeostasis, systems must
detect
deviations from normal in internal environment
that need to be held between narrow limits
make appropriate adjustments
factor to its desired value
Homeostatic control systems
Feedback loops
negative feedback
positive feedback
feedback
responses made after change has been detected
childbirth
low blood sugar
keeping the correct body temperature
when some variable triggers a counteracting response in order to come back to homeostasis.
intensifies the variable
as opposed to counteracting it
Blood Glucose
body maintains glucose levels
negative feedback
blood glucose too high
body reduces the stimulus
negative feedback reduces it
blood glucose levels too low
negative feedback increases it
requires
receptor
control centre
effector
Negative feedback loop
receptor
control centre
effector
structures that monitor a controlled condition and detect changes
determines the normal range of the variable and determines response to the stimulus
receives directions from the control center and produces a response that restores the controlled condition
high blood glucose levels for too long (diabetes) can cause
Cardiovascular disease•Nerve damage (neuropathy)•Kidney damage (diabetic nephropathy) or kidney failure•Damage to the blood vessels of the retina (diabetic retinopathy), potentially leading to blindness•Clouding of the normally clear lens of your eye (cataract)•Feet problems caused by damaged nerves or poor blood f low that can lead to serious skin infections, ulcerations, and in some severe cases, amputation•Bone and joint problems•Teeth and gum infectionsInsulin injections or insulin pump
constantly surveying conditions of organisms internal environment
responds to information from Hypothalamus
2 parts
anterior
posterior
front
back
regulates secretion from anterior
4 hormones
directly influence release of hormones from other endocrine glands
ACTH
adrenal
TSH
thyroid
FSH and LH
ovaries and testes
uses the stimulus response model