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MEMORY - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Procedure:
        
        used a tachistosope which flashes pictoral stimuli onto a blank screen for brief periods
        
        asked subjects to remember as many letters as they could from a grid of 12 symbols flashed for 50 ms
        
        Partial report technique, trained them to distinguish between three tones low medium and high. he then exposed the grid for the same amount of time and when the grid dissapearded n of the tones followed which indicated the corresponding row they had to remember.
        
        a partial report technique but with a delay between the grid dissapearing and the sounding of the tone
      - Aim: studied the capacity and duration of sensory register
      - Results:
        
        regular procedure- from the grid of 12 people could only remember four on average
        
        partial report technique: recall of a single row was 3/4 on average
        
        delayed partial report: the longer the delay the more information lost, only 50% retained with a 0.3 sec delay and only 33% after a 1 sec delay
    - - Procedure: presented participants with a list of words and asked participants to immediately recall them
      - Results:
        
        They found that words at the beginning of the list are recalled, primacy effect
        
        They found that words at the end of the list are also recalled, recency effect
        
        Words in the middle are forgotten, asymptote
    - - HM case study
        
        Conclusions: Supports Tulving's different types of LTM as we can see that explicit and implicit memories are affected differently
        
        Consequences: He could not retain any new information, or remember anything from the last 10 years of his life, but he could learn new motor skills such as tracing a star in a mirror and using a walking frame when he sprained his ankle, but these were subconscious skills, he never stated to have seen the drawing or the frame before but he still improved.
        
        What happened: A severe epilepsy patient, Henry Molaison, had experimental surgery to treat it, and it did, but it left him with severe memory impairment. His hippocampus was removed.
      - Clive Wearing
        
        Clive Wearing is a British former musicologist, conductor, tenor and keyboardist who suffers from chronic anterograde and retrograde amnesia. He lacks the ability to form new memories, and also cannot recall aspects of his past memories, frequently believing that he has only recently awoken from a comatose state.
        
        He however can remember how to play piano (procedural skills) and who his wife is, though he acts as if hes only just met her (semantic memories)
        
        He lives in the moment, without memories of the past, or forming future memories
        
        Conclusions: Supports the multi-store model as his STM is relatively intact, and his LTM is mostly destroyed, so it supports that they are seperate, otherwise they would be identically affected, Supports Tulving's different LTM stores as his procedural memory is intact but his others are not.
- - - - Phonological loop
        
        Deals with spoken and written material
        
        Consists of
        
        Phonological store
        
        Processses speech and stores spoken words for about 2-3 seconds
        
        Inner ear
        
        Articulatory control system
        
        Inner voice
        
        Processes speech production and stores verbal information from the phonological store
      - Visuo spatial sketchpad
        
        Stores and processes information in a visual form
        
        Used for navigation
        
        Inner eye
        
        Used for visual and spatial encoding like the layout of your bedroom
    - - Allocates attention and priority to different activities
      - Monitors and coordinates the two slave systems
      - Controls how resources are allocated when we encode incoming information
      - Deals with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and prblem solving
    - - Was added in 2000 when orginal model couldn't explain the results of experiments
      - Is a communicator between LTM and working memory
      - Links information from across the systems
  - - - Ecological validity, most research was done in labs
      - Needed the episodic buffer added, wasn't a model built on research and so may have other gaps/ flaws
      - Function of the central executive is too vague, theory over simplistic
      - Leiberman criticises it pointing out that blind people have excellent spatial awareness depsite not recieving visual information, so argues that the VSS should be split into seperate stores for visuial and spatial info to be seperate
      - Only describes STM not LTM so is not a fully comprehensive model of memory
    - - KF case study showed that visual and verbal information have different short term memory stores as after a motorcycle accident he had impairment to his verbal infomartion STM but his visual STM was largely unnaffected
      - Dual task research
        
        Baddeley and Hitch
        
        Found that when doing 2 tasks which require the same slave system such as verbal reasoning while repeating strings of numbers, performance on one will be affected due to the overload of the store
        
        Performance doing 2 tasks that use different slave systems is fine, suggesting that slave systems deal with certain information and have limited capacities, as the model suggests
      - Posner
        
        Visual tasks activate posterior regions and auditory tasks activate lateral regions
        
        Supports the idea that the processing of different types of inforation is localised and has different slave systems as the model suggests
        
        Used pet scans to show how different types of task activate different parts of the brain
      - More detailed than the MSM as it practically applies to real life tasks such as reading problem solving and navigation
- - - - CI tecnique is not suitable for children or people with learning disabilities, meaning that it can't be used on all witnesses. Holliday then adapted the CI to be more inclusive suggesting the original ideas from Geislman weren't good enough
      - Geiselman themself points out that it cant be used to identify suspect
    - - Supportive studies
        
        Fisher
        
        With CI techniques, detectives gained 47% more information than standard techniques they used before
        
        ++ used real life crime witnesses so adds validity and generalisability
        
        Trained florida detectives with CI techniques and then compared performance in interviews to before training, when they used standard interview
        
        Geiselman
        
        Both groups during interview gave equal items of incorrect information, but cognitive interview participants recalled more correct items of information
        
        Compares the effectiveness of standard interview and cognitive interview
        
        Counterbalance- watching a crime video is different to real life so may not be generalisable or relflect realistic levels of anxiety
        
        Independent groups- both groups watchd a video of violent crime, 48 hours later one group was interviewed using standard interview and the other group with cognitive
      - A meta analysis of 27 studies that compared CI and SI by Bekerian and Dennett found that CI yeilded more accurate and more amounts of information
      - Practical applications- a teachable criteria of interview can standardse police interviews and prevent/ decrease unethical interrogation such as tortutre/ bribes ect. This can consequenty decrease miscarriages of justice
  - - - Adapt language used to suit the individual witness
      - Ask witness to speak slowly (to maintain calm)
      - Minimised distractions
      - Avoid judgemental and personal comments to reduce anxiety involved
- - - - Types
        
        Visual codes
        
        Semantic codes
        
        Acoustic codes
      - the way information is changed so that is can be stored in memory
  - - - Aim: to investigate the duration of STM and the effects of rehersal, used the 'Brown Peterson technique, a method of measuring the duration of STM by preventing rehersal
      - Procedure: participants were briefly shown trigrams of consonants, VGT, FCN. Participants were then asked to count downwards in threes from a given number. after intervals of 3,6,9,12,15 of 18 seconds, participants were asked to recall the original trigram
      - Brown Peterson effect: the rapid loss of information in STM if rehersal is prevented.
      - Evaluation
        
        strengths
        
        Practical applications, can improve peoples memories
        
        experiments are highly controlled, contol of extraneous variables, reliable and valid results
        
        Supports the theory of two memory stores, MSM, as the Brown Peterson effect prevents info from moving from STM to LTM
        
        weaknesses
        
        Lacks ecological validity, done in a lab
        
        Lacks mundane realism, the task is unrealistic and nobody would have to naturally do this, hard to generalise to real life or other situations
      - Conclusion: Info in STM is lost quickly if rehersal is prevented, this became known as the Brown Peterson effect.
      - Findings: Participants were able to recall 80% of trigrams after a 3 second interval, after 6 seconds this fell to 50% and after 18 seconds it was only 10% recall
    - - 3 2 5 9 3 5 becomes 32 59 35 or 325 935
      - Why does it work? A chunk only takes up one space in STM and so STM can hold up to 7 chunks of info at one time with this technique
      - Chunking: organising items of information into groups or chunks to make the most efficient use of STM's limited capacity.
      - Chunking is even more effective if the chunks have meaning
    - - serial recall: asked them to recall items in the same order they were presented
      - lab experiment, repeated measures
      - digit span technique: asked participants to remember and repeat lists of items increasing in length
      - Findings
        
        Digit span increased with age, 6.6 for a 6 year old and 8.6 for 19 year olds
        
        Digits recalled better than letters
        
        the average short term memory span was between 5-9 items.
      - Aim: to test the capacity of STM
      - Conclusions
        
        the capacity of STM is 7+ or - 2 items.
        
        Individual differences such as age affect serial digit span
    - - Aim: To explore the effect of semantic and acoustic encoding in STM and LTM
      - Procedure:
        
        STM study: asked to immediately recall a list of 5 words
        
        LTM study: asked to recall after 20 minutes a list of 10 words
        
        Word categories
        
        Acoustically similar, man, mad, map
        
        Acoustically dissimilar, pen, day, few
        
        Semantically similar, great, big,large
        
        Semantically dissimilar, hot, old, late
        
        Participants were asked to recall in serial order a list of words taken from a pool of wods in the following categories
      - Findings:
        
        in LTM recall of SS words was much worse than SD words, recall was the same for AS and AD words
        
        in STM words that sounded similar were harder to recall than acoustically dissimilar words, meaning had little effect on STM, there were similar scores for SS and SD words
      - Conclusions
        
        STM relies on acoustic encoding
        
        LTM relies on semantic encoding
    - - Aim: to measure the duration of LTM. To demonstrate the existence of very long term memories. To test memory of real life information
      - Procedure
        
        Recall tasks
        
        Name recognition test
        
        Free recall of names of classmates
        
        Name and photo matching test
        
        Photo recognition to identify ex- classmates
        
        Participants- 400 ex- students of various ages, using thier old yearbooks
      - Conclusions: LTM has the potential to last a lifetime, people have very good long term memories which are very accurate
      - Findings
        
        After 48 years this declines to 70%
        
        Free recall was less accurate by 60% after 15 years, 30 % after 48 years
        
        after up to 34 years, participants could remember up to 90% of thier class mates.
      - Evaluation:
        
        Strengths:
        
        Experiments were highly controlled, lab setting, reliable and valid
        
        add support to the theory of two models MSM
        
        good mundane realism, as name recall is an everyday task, findings are generalisable
  - - - Capacity: 5-7 peices of information
      - Duration: 18-30 seconds
      - Coding: acoustic is best
    - - Capacity: unlimited, untestable
      - Duration: unlimited, potential to last a lifetime
      - Coding: semantic is best
    - - Duration: 250 milliseconds
      - Coding: visually and acoustically
      - Capacity: Unlimited, all that is percieved
- - - - Experiment 2
        
        A week later all participants were asked if they saw any broken glass, there was none in the film
        
        It was found that people who were asked about the cars 'smashing' more often said yes to seeing broken glass compared to the 'hit' group and the control
        
        Participants watched a car crash viedo and were asked either how fast the cars were going when they smashed or hit eachother, a third group was not asked about the car's speed
      - Experiment 1
        
        Participants were asked 'How far were the cars going when they __ eachother
        
        Different groups were given the question with different verbs in the missing spaces, ether smashed collided bumped hit or contacted
        
        45 students split into 5 groups and watched the same video of a car crash
        
        The verb used in the question affected the speed estimates, with smashed gaining the highest MPH and contacted the lowest
      - Conclusions- the use of different verbs affected the pps recall and estimation of speed, showing the effect of leading questions on EWT
  - - - Procedure
        
        One group heard a discussion about equiptment failiure and saw a man leave a room with a pen and grease on his hands - low anxiety
        
        Participants were given 50 photos and asked to identify the man who left the room
        
        One group heard a loud violent arguement and witnessed a man with a bloody knife leaving a room - high anxiety
      - Results
        
        Knife group were 33% accurate identifying him
        
        Pen group were 49% accurate in identifying him
      - Conclusion- weapon focus phenomenon, when there is a weapon involved individuals focus on it for thie own safety and miss important details
      - Evaluation
        
        +
        
        Lab study- high ecological validity, no confounding variables
        
        Loftus and Burns study where participants watched either a violent or non violent film, recall for the violent film was less suggesting that anxiety caused by violence can impair memory
        
        _
        
        Lab study lacks mundane realism- a real scenario may affect recall differently ( yuille and cutshall)
        
        Ethical issues, caused participants stress by making them feel in danger with the knife
    - - Findings
        
        Those closest to the event provided the most detail
        
        Misleading questions did not affect recall
        
        Eyewitnesses can be very reliable in real life scenarios
      - Evaluation
        
        +
        
        Real life event, high ecological validity, more useful information about memory in action
        
        _
        
        Natural experiment, lack of control and room for confounding variables
        
        Not generalisable outside canada
      - Interviewed 13 witnesses to a real life robbery in Canada where a store owner was wounded and the thief shot dead
    - - Medium arousal- ideal for performance
      - High arousal, turns to anxiety and stress and gives you bad performance and impairs memory
      - Low arousal- low performance
  - - - Gabbert- made two different groups of participants watch different angles of the same crime video, one group were asked to recall alone and the other group recalled in pairs. Of the people who recalled in pairs, 71% of them had recalled a false detail from thier partners perspective
      - Wright- showed two groups videos of the same crime, the difference was that one video showed a lone thief and one video showed an accomplice. Initial recall was accurate but after PED, 75% of participants had shown memory conformity.
      - These studies suggest that PED can cause memory conformity and that police should keep witnesses seperate to increase recall accuracy