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GRT1 - Coggle Diagram
GRT1
Lesson 1
Grammar
Morphology
Deals with the internal form of words.
Syntax
How words can be assembled into sentences.
Functions and Categories
Subject = function
Noun = category
Function
relation concept
subject is a
SUBJECT OF A CLAUSE
not only a subject
Things change
things = subject
= relation between it and change,
or the whole clause
Category
Class of expressions that are grammatically alike
Word categories
= parts of speech
number of properties shared
by groups of words within the same category
one can derive
morphological form
structural relations in a clause
conceptual field
The group of words will behave similarly with respect to:
form
(inflection...)
meaning
function
(syntactic behaviour)
These might differ
phonologically
Mainly in terms of stress and voicing
Czech VS English
CZ: 10
ENG: 12
Grammatical categories
= grammatical properties shared by each class
Tense and Aspect
for verbs
Case and Gender
for nouns
Number
Largely universal BUT it can differ
NOUN
Definiteness
Gender
Number
Case
Countability
Count nouns
countable
Criteria
3 more items...
Mass nouns
uncountable
Criteria
3 more items...
everything smaller than average
pea becomes a mass noun
2 more items...
Vast majority of nouns in Eng can be found in both
Meaning often differs though
Lesson 3
Subject-verb agreement
Eng: most important is number concord between subject and finity verb
verb: involves the categories of
person and number
concord = agreement
The principle of proximity
agreement of the verb with the closes noun to it
degrades the head of NP
whichever phrase comes last determines the number of the verb
the year and
a half has
passed
Grammatical concord
singular subject + singular verb
plural subject + plural verb
subject matches the verb in number
each member of the coordination has the same number
concord of 3rd person number between subject and verb
most important
Notional concord
verb is in agreement with subject on the account of notion of number
measure expressions
use of singular in phrases of quantity or measure
ten dollars is
two mile is
names, titles, quotations
The Brothers Karamazov
is
The Canterbury Tales
is/are
collective nouns
board, committee, jury, staff
treated differently in AmE and BE
defined as a relationship between two grammatical units which correspond with each others features
Lesson 5
Determination II.: specific and generic reference
Generic reference
Zero article
most natural way to express generic reference
Indefinite article
cannot be used in attributing properties which belong to the class or species as a whole
Definite article
rather limited: indicate the class as represented by its typical specimen
Specific reference
Indefinite article
a(n) and one
unstressed variant of the numeral one
first mention
the reference cannot be regarded as a shared knowledge between the speaker and addressee
classification
a complement function in a clause
Definite article
marks the phrase as definite
situational reference
immediate
larger
even worldwide situations
sencond mention
logical/grammatical uniqueness
we may pressupose the knowledge of the addressee if the fact we are stating is generally known or is easy to understand
Zero article
definite
can resemble definite article
unique role/task
they made him chairman
expression relating to common experience
meals, time expression, seasons, illness, fixed phrases
indefinite
0, some or any
Lesson 7
Morphology of the English Verb I.
categories of Eng verb
tense
12 verbal forms of tense + aspect
grammatical contrast between present and past forms of the finite verb
aspect
the way in which the verb action is regarded or experienced with respecct to time
progressive aspect
viewed as incomplete = in progress
perfective aspect
viewed as anterior with respect to another situation
number
grammatical choice between singular and plural
voice
grammatical category involving the choice between passive and active forms VP
person
grammatical category which applies primary to pronouns and secondarily to NP and verbs
mood
a category that is not useful in Eng grammar - it just indicates the mood of the utterance
expressions of past time
simple past
state
a time gap between what happened and the present
habit
can be paraphrased using
used to
event
a definite time when the event/state took place
non-past uses = reference to present and future time
indirect speech
did you say you have/had no money?
attitudinal past
did/do you want to see me now?
hypothetical past
If you really worked hard, you would soon get promoted
the present perfect
relating a past event/state to a present state orientation
indefinite event in a period leading up to the present
Have you ever (been) to Florence?
resultative past ('hot news')
The apples have all been eaten
state/habit in a period leading up to the present
the house has been empty for ages
the past perfect
meaning of past-in-past
a time in the past, seen from the viewpoint of a definite point of time already in the past
After Ivan (had) finished reading, he put out the light.
means of expressing future time
will and going to
decision VS outcome of present intentions
I'll phone him back
I am going to phone him back
prediction VS outcome of present cause
It will rain tomorrow
There's going to be a storm
the present simple and present progressive
future assumed to be fact VS present arrangement
What time are you leaving tomorrow?
What time does the train lave tomorrow?
the future progressive
temporary situations in the future
don't call me - I will be working.
future as a matter of course
Next week we will be working on our worksheets.
the future perfect
next year they will have been married for 25 years.
Lesson 2
Number
= grammatical category
indivisible
mass or singular nouns
water, boy
divisible
boys
Singular invariable
games
darts, dominoes, skittles
sciences
linguistics, mathematics
diseases
measles, chickenpox, mumps
towns and countries
Athens, the Netherlands
Plural invariable
nouns that "occur only in plural"
They have plural concord
eg. clothes
wages, winnings, assets
no suffix
-s
police, people, cattle
tools, instruments...
glasses, scales, tweezers
Variable nouns
Regular plurals
/s/
ending in voiceless consonants
bets, months
/iz/
ending in
sibilants
horses, sizes, rushes, churches
/z/
ending in vowels and voiced consonants
days, beds
Spelling
ends in
o
-os
-oes
ends in
y
days, plays
skies
Irregular plurals
the -en plural
onex, children
vowel alternation
feet, mice, lice, women
voicing
spelling
wives, knives, dwarves
pronunciation
houses
other
person - people
= suppletive plural
zero plurals
both singular and plural
plural = singular
offspring, species, means, aircraft
animal names: sheep, deer
right hand head rule
pluralization of the last element
head of morphologically complex word is the
right-hand member
Lesson 4
Determination I.: Proper Nouns
= definiteness
determiner is an obligatory element with
count singular common nouns
Proper Nouns
definite article
cities, villages
The Hague
lakes, bays, falls
N of N (the Lake of Luzern)
Titles
adj.title+name, title+0, N of N, foreign title+name
theatres, museums...
the Globe, the British Museum
streets, squares...
the Strad, the Mall
mountains, islands
groups
the Alps, the Bermudas
single
N of N (the Cape of Hope)
planets, stars
the Moon, the Sun, the Earth
People
whole families, THE John Lennon
oceans, seas, rivers
the Pacific, the Missouri river
continets, countries...
the Artic, the Vatican, the CR, plural, N of N
airports, stations...
N of N (the University of London), common noun/adj + N
companies, airlines...
the Coca-Cola
company
ships
the Titanic, the Queen Elizabeth
newspapers, magazines
The Times
The World
zero article
people
first names, surnames and combinations of these two,
little James
titles
title+name
Mr, Mrs,Miss
planets, stars
Jupiter, Mars
lakes, bays, falls
Loch Ness, Niagara Falls
streets, squares
Oxford Street, Long Street
oceans, seas, rivers
Frankfurt-on-Main
theatres, museums
McDonald's, Covent Garden
single mountains, islands
Mount Everest, Sicily
airports, stations
Westminster Abbey, Canterbury Cathedral
cities, villages
New York
companies, airlines
IBM, British Airways
continents, countries
Asia, Europe
magazines
Time, Punch
ships
HMS Invincible
Lesson 6
Gender, Case and Pronouns
Gender
is NOT an inflectional category in Eng
differentiated on basis of relations with
pronouns
pronouns are determined by denotation or reference
grammatical classification mainly for
3rd person singular personal pronouns
feminine gender pronoun
she
= females
neuter pronoun
it
= inanimates, animals
masculine gender
he
= males
personification
the reference is a "person"
the reference can posses the atributes of human race
Gender-neutral
dual gender
artist, cook, friend, guest
Triple gender
baby, child, snake, goat
Single gender
bachelor, boy,mother
Case
system of inflectional forms whose primary use is to mark various syntactic functions
nouns and pronouns in Eng
common case
children, someone
genitive case
children's, someone's
personal pronouns
subjective
I, we, he, him, she, they
objective
me, us, him, her, them
Pronouns
demonstrative
this/these, that/those
indefinite
positive
universal
all/both, each/every
assertive
the some series, one, half, severa, other, another
non-assertive
the any series, either
negative
the no series, neither
central
reflexive
must agree with the subject in terms of gender, number, and person
himself, myself
possessive
determinative
my, your, his, her, our
independent
mine, yours, his, hers, ours
= genetive case of personal pronouns
personal
I/me, we/us, you, he/him
reciprocal
express "two way reflexive relationship"
each other, one another
the use of these two does not change the meaning
interrogative
wh-questions
indefinite
who, what
unlimited choices
definite
which
limited number of choices
relative
who, whom, whose, which
that and 0
personal and nonpersonal concord
stranding
leaving out a preposition that is seperated from its NP
under which the boy crawled
the boy crawled under
Lesson 8
Morphology of the English verb II.
simple present
reference to present time
habits
we go to London every year
events
an event started and done the moment the speaker starts and stops speaking
Ronaldo shoots and scores!
states
general timeless statements (general truths)
two and three make five
non-present uses
referring to the past
historic present
the queen arrives to the special meeting in 1970
headlines reporting recent events
'No sell-out', says P.M.
verbs of communication
The ten o'clock news says there's going to be a bad storm.
refering to the future
main clauses
the event is fixed in advance
the plane leaves in an hour
dependent clauses
conditional and temporal clauses
He'll do it if you pay him
progressive aspect
is happening
in progress
at a given time
habits
the professor types his letters on his own as his secretary is ill
takes place over a limited period of time
event verbs
What is Mary doing right now?
state verbs
do not normally take the progressive form
inert perception
see, hear, feel, smell, taste
inert cognition
know, belive, think, wonder, suppose, imagina, realize, understand
verbs of having and being
be, belong to, contain, consist of, cost, depend on, deserve, have, matter, own..
of attitude
hate, hope, intend, like, love, prefer, regret, want, wish
of bodily sensation
hurt, ache, tickle, itch, feel (cold)