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Environmental ethics - Coggle Diagram
Environmental ethics
Deep ecology - Arne Naess
an environmental movement & philosophy which regards human life as just one of many components of global ecosystem
no one creature is more important than another - the unity of all things is called 'Ecosophy'
ecocentric approach
the induvial is cut off from others & their surrounding, the self seen as a solidarity & independent among other independents.
this separation leads to anthropocentrism & environmental degradation
deep ecology believes that the self should be understood as deeply connected with & as a part of nature - the 'ecological self' representing humans acting in harmony with nature
once the ecological self is realised then it will follow the norms of an environmental ethic that will end the abuse of nature that is caused by the traditional self
human behaviour, industrialism & over-population is the main cause of environmental damage - no lifeform has the right to exploit nature for its own benefit, the earth is intrinsically valuable
urgent change is needed & a reduction in population
other deep ecologists have caused outrage by suggesting we shouldn't interfere with the natural culling of humans through drought, disaster or pandemic. The are a natural process & a means to reduce the population
some believe that danger to the plant justifies violent protests & disruption to capitalist order
Naess however was an admirer of Gandhi & argued for peaceful environmental protest, he chained himself to a rocs to stop a dam being built in Norway in the 1960s & successfully influence Norwegian policy.
modern examples of deep ecology groups;
the Green Movement
the Green party
Strengths
positive effects on the environment preventing damage, extinction & bringing new understanding of the value of ecosystems
very influential & significant impact - inspiring modern environmental movements e.g. extinction rebellion, green peace, Green party. it has become a mainstream view
Weaknesses
very idealistic, impractical, humansa are too selfish
questions of social justice - the poor can suffer if wealthy westerners stop them farming, cutting down trees & buildings & building dams, etc
devalues human life which is sacred
leads to some extremist violent views - ecoterrorists (e.g. Animal liberation protestors)
arguably misanthropic (human hating) & discourages a growing population
counter-arg - by decreasing the pop the value of each individual increases
if followed to extremes could lead to the destruction of human race
counter-arg - this is stupid, hyperbolic/far-fetched
Gaia hypothesis - James Lovelock
lovelock argued that the environmental problems of the world cannot be solved by humans - all things are part of a greater entity - Gaia
a theory put forward by lovelock - living matter on the earth collectively defines & regulates the material conditions necessary for the continuance of life. The planet, or rather the biosphere is thus likened to a vast self-regulating organism
Gaia cannot be completely understood, cause we cant see it as a separate objective observer
All things in nature are an integral part of the whole living entity of Gaia even rocks
anthropomorphic view of the planet as view as earth as 1 living entity
destruction of 1 part of the organism will harm the whole thing
Gaia is a self regulating living system - the earth is a holistic system, Gaia has the power to change everything restoring balance to the environment when humans damage it
Lovelock says we shouldn't we anthropocentric but biocentric & Gaia restores the balance to the imbalance cause by humans
Gaia has the power & the final word even though humans are the people are the ones damaging Gaia through practices that degrade the environment - as the result of human action is ultimately the widespread human demise that Gaia has the ability to bring about
strengths
places a high value on the planet & is very reverent & respectful
emphasises the interconnectedness of ecosystems
weaknessess
evolutionary biologists disagree that organisms work together for mutual benefit
if world is self-regulating, then no need to interfere & work to overcome environmental problems
a quazi-religious view with little scientific support
Shallow ecology & conservationism - Utilitarianism
anthropocentric view - environment matter cause of its effect on human welfare, has instrumental value alone
key principle of shallow ecology = maintaining biodiversity through conservation for sake of humans
preservation for its own sake isnt necessary but if a habitat is important to human flourishing than it should be protected
e.g. shallow ecologist were key in creating UK national parks - important places for humans to enjoy recreation but tourism to them has damaged the environment
as humans are the most important our need come first
big debate in shallow ecology if we should restore habitats & restore animals to their natural environment
e.g. red squirrels to Scotland
Michael LaBossiere argues species should be allowed to die out & its impossible to stop habitats disappearing
Utilitarian approach to environment
Bentham & Mill have widely different views on the natural world
Bentham
Bentham - pleasure was to be preferred to pain as this is how it is in nature
believed animals should be cared for as sentient beings
Mill
saw natural world as cruel & brutal, humanity brings order & nature is to be controlled in order to stop human suffering
anthropocentric
didn't disagree animals should be cared for - but cause to abuse animals was to degrade humans - a lower pleasure
Singer
followed on from Bentham's approach, he was a contemporary utilitarian
argued that all sentient animals should be considered equally when discussing environmental matters
believes in speciesism - the belief that one spices (humans) are morally superior to others just by virtue of the species they belong to
humans typically show speciesism when they give less weigh to the interests of nonhuman animals than to humans
example of antelope & human caught in trap - you & your friend are walking in the woods your friend gets caught in an animal trap but there's an antelope caught in one nearby, you should free the antelope first cause humans can reason so you can reassure your friend you're going to help them whereas the antelope cant reason so it would arguably suffer more pain as a sentient being
"I don't thing ethics is just for humans"
most important thing he believes we can do to avoid animal suffering & to work towards a more ethical world is to avoid factory farmed products
Quantitate utilitarians
calculate if an action will maximise the welfare benefits for the maximal amount og sentient beings
conservation ethics
nature should be used to provide the greatest good for the greatest number for the longest time - we need to conserve the environment in order to do this
Strengths
practical approach which has materially improved protected environments & welfare of animals (e.g. national parks, reducing plastic waste)
inspired successful campaigns, e.g. reduce plastic in oceans, preservation of habitats, etc
anthropocentric element ensures it effective
Weaknesses
Utilitarianism - problems of subjectivity & predicting future outcomes
Singer - speciesism is natural & we should accept that there is a hierarchy of animals with humans at the top. Shelly Kagen - practical reason demands that we should take a common sense approach with humans interests above animals. Not all animals have equal moral status
Christians - humans made in Image of God, have a soul therfore reject Singer, humans are special & unique
Biblical/Christian beliefs & approaches to the environment
Genesis :1
humans created last = superior to rest of creation, they are the pinacol
"rule over the fish in the sea, the birds in the sky and over every living creature that moves on the ground" Gen1:28
Dominion
"The Lord God took the man and pt him in the Garden of Eden to work it and take care of it" Gen:2 15
Stewardship
Dominion - Gen 2: 19-20
Adam names the animals
implies humans are superior & signifies ownership of creation, very anthropocentric view of nature
humans have a sort of control & sovereignty over the environment
Stewardship
humans have been given the role of supervising/taking care of the environment by God
has become a more popular interpretation in recent years
Church of England
be economical in our use of energy resources
control damage done to plants & animals
minimise population (similar to deep ecology) in order to reach suitable harmony
Anglican church
has issued statements calling on the world to care for the environment
Aesthetic principle (Tennent & design argument)
the beauty of creation reflects God's artistry & power
implies that creation has some intrinsic worth & we should respect it - shows respect for god
nature is also a means of religious experience
a noetic or mystical experience through awe & wonder of nature
NML & the RC Church
take an anthopocentric, intrumental view
the right way to treat the environment would be to ensue that Primary precepts are being upheld
its useful so long that it benefits the precepts such as we need nature to maintain human life
environmental issues are a result of Natural & moral evil & the fall
Aquinas;
"it matters not how man behaves to animals"
"the life of animal and plants is preserved not for themselves but for men"
BUT! Pope Francis has called for action to stop climate change & said that caring for the environment should be added to traditional values of Christian mercy 9e.g. feeding the hungry, visiting the sick)
Rapture theory
Evangelical, fundamentalist Christians in some churches argue that environmental destruction is inevitable as we are in the End Times.
We should not & cannot stop it. It is a 'good' thing as it means the 2nd coming of Jesus is near
Weaknesses of religious approaches to the environment
anthropocentric view leads to abuse, selfishness & disrespect for things unimportant to us
Singer calls this speciesism - arrogant view of own superiority
L.White argues that the roots of our eco-crisis are to be found in Christian teachings of dominion
difficulty in interpreting & applying different scriptures - contradictory
Osborne - we need to 'dedivine' nature, make a non-religious & scientific view
Rapture theory (minority view) could justify terrible environmental outcomes
Osborne - we need to 'de-divine' nature - take a non-religious & scientific view
Strengths of religious approaches to the environment
humans are stewards - emphasises duty if care
Church leaders have issues statements calling on Christians to care for the environment as God's creation
creation has intrinsic values as it reflects God (Aesthetic principle etc) - act of worship to care for it
NML can be applied to modern environmental issues as it seeks to preserve human life & can help find a balance between environmental concerned & the needs to the poor
more realistic & practical than deep ecology
Environmental theories applied to environmental issues
Waste management
Christian ethics
Stewardship – duty to recycle, hazardous waste must be disposed of safely – harmful to God’s creation
Dominion – harmful to humans if waste pollutes environment – humans must be protected – anthropocentric view – pinnacle of God’s creation
Deep ecology
Reduce waste drastically – recycle what we do produce – problem with materialistic, consumer culture which needs to change – simpler way of life, producing less;
Ecocentric – all species have the right to live in a non-polluted environment
Shallow ecology
Care for habitats, remove pollutants, restore oceans for benefit of humans and animals
Bentham – waste management is vital to protect sentient animals, reduce suffering of people, especially in developing countries
Evaluation (which is best)
Deep ecology impractical, too idealistic – humans are selfish and will not give up the comforts and pleasures of consumer lifestyle – Utilitarians might argue this would cause unemployment, poverty as capitalism is based on consumerism. Conservation for human benefit is a more practical response.
Stewardship is a reasonable response, which many people support, religious or not – idea of duty to care for something is persuasive and links to Kantian ethics
Process of collecting, processing & disposal of waste products. EG India – open dumping of waste – air, water, land pollution.
Need to recycle – developing countries negligible; safe disposal of nuclear waste; wealthy countries recycling sent to poorer countries for processing, but it is just dumped; plastic in the oceans
Animal welfare
Christian ethics
Stewardship – duty to protect, conserve, care + role God has given humans
Dominion – we can use animals as we ‘rule over’ but not to abuse or exploit, in our interests to care for them
NML – Primary Precept of preservation of (human) life – caring for animals is important, they are there to support. BUT: Aquinas…
”It matters not how man behaves to animals.”
"The life of animals and plants is preserved not for themselves but for men.“
Rapture Theory – Evangelical Fundamentalists – destruction is inevitable in the End Times. No need to do anything to change that. Jesus’ is coming.
Deep ecology
Naess – should protect, all nature has intrinsic value, must be cared for
Lovelock – biocentric view, we should protect all creatures as all play in healthy ecosystems – Gaia hypothesis, Gaia will eventually balance the needs of all and regulate our abuse.
Shallow ecology
Singer (Util) Speciesism – all sentient animals should have an equal interest and their needs should be calculated alongside humans. Believes that all humans should cease eating factory farmed foods to make the biggest impact on animal welfare
Evaluation (which is best)
Deep ecology – not impractical to have basic welfare standards, encourage veganism, we ought to aspire to the highest principles we can
Singer – many think he goes too far and speciesism goes against our intuition about the place of humans and their importance, but we could do better than we do currently.
S Kagan argues for a hierarchy of animals, with humans at the top – ‘practical realism’
Dominion – has justified animal abuse in the past and underpins our attitudes towards using animals for our benefit – see Aquinas’ quote; this is old fashioned and out of date view, not relevant in a secular world
Questions of social justice – some poorer people may go hungry if meat is farmed ethically
Providing for an animal’s physical and mental needs
Factory farming, animal testing, animals in entertainment, engendered species, extinction, loss of habitat, poaching, fur industry, pollution of sea, over fishing
Sustainability of natural resources
Maintaining natural resources, using renewables eg solar, wind energy
Christian ethics
Stewardship – duty to find sustainable natural resources etc
Dominion – we have control, we can take what we need for human life to flourish and survive, but if we ignore dangers it could affect human life –
Link to NML Primary Precept – to preserve life
Rapture theory….
Deep ecology
Naess – should protect, all nature has intrinsic value, must be cared for
Ecocentric – all species have the right to live in a non-polluted environment
Shallow ecology
Conservationism – human needs come first, but we should look towards more sustainable forms of energy in the future, Gov policy should reflect this
Util: principle of utility – will maximise happiness in long run if we can have more sustainable energy
Evaluation (which is best)
Solar and wind energy not always practical in some part of the world
Questions of social justice – some poorer people will suffer if they cannot use fossil fuels
Humans are selfish, Dominion encourages a speciesist view of the environment
Anthropocentric views are more practical and will lead to change sooner
Util – problems of predicting the future. Nuclear energy was dismissed by conservationists in the past, but is now seen as a clear fuel.
Stopping deforestation, use of fossil fuels (pollutant), car emissions (banning diesel cars), etc
Climate change
Change of global temperatures because of the use of fossil fuels
examples of effect
Flooding (Venice)
Impact on habitats, affecting animals eg polar bears, coral reefs dying
Forest fires
Christian ethics
Dominion – we have control, we can take what we need for human life to flourish and survive, but if we ignore dangers it could affect human life
Link to NML Primary Precept – to preserve life, also to live in a ordered society. Climate change could lead to massive disruption of human life and breakdown of society.
Stewardship – duty to find alternative fuels, reduce carbon emissions etc
Rapture theory….
Deep ecology
Naess – should protect, all nature has intrinsic value, must be cared for
Ecocentric – all species have the right to live in a non-polluted environment
Lovelock gave dire warnings about Climate Change before it became popular
Shallow ecology
Conservationism – human needs come first, but we should look towards more sustainable forms of energy in the future, Gov policy should reflect this
Util: principle of utility – will maximise happiness in long run if we can have more sustainable energy/stable climate etc…
Evaluation (which is best)
Anthropocentric views are more practical and will lead to change sooner
Util – problems of predicting the future. Nuclear energy was dismissed by conservationists in the past, but is now seen as a clear fuel.
Humans are selfish, Dominion encourages a speciest view of the environment; L White – current eco crisis has it’s roots in Dominion
3 main approaches;
2) Biocentric - life centred 'mid green' - shallow ecology, conservationism, Singer
3) Ecocentric - planet centred 'dark green' - deep ecology, Gaia hypothesis
1) Anthropocentric - human centred views 'light green' - religious views, Kant, Aquinas, Bentham
Intrinsic & instrumental value
a big issue in environmental ethics is whether nature is intrinsically valuable or just useful to humans. One sees it as a tool to provide humans, the other believes that aspects of the environment have their own interests & need to be considered in their own right
Intrinsic value
ecocentric
the environment has its value within it self, it has its own interests that need to considered & upheld
Instrumental value
anthropocentric & biocentric
the environments value lies within its usefulness - if we harm the environment than the negative consequences so for future human life on earth might not be so good, therefore it is in our own interest to look after the natural world
other religious views to environment
Pantheism - Matthew Fox
Fox criticised Augustine's view on NL (that its inevitable cause of original sin) & states that suffering of nature is present cause mankind is alienated from nature
in order to breach the gap between humanity & nature, Fox said we should 'befriend' nature & treat it as a gift, also said we should befriend darkness, by which he meant non-human pain - the pain of animals, plants & the earth
the belief that God is within everything, when anything alters so does God
Osborne
argued we need to 'de-divine' nature & take God out as a concept. He advocated dominion but stated that dominion isn't the same as domination. Believed that mankind should have a covenant with nature
humans have a tendency to be anthropocentric - they are/perceive themselves to be the centre of reality & we see things in relation to our own context