parenting means implementing a series of decisions about the socialization of your children—what you do to enable them to become responsible, contributing members of society, as well as what you do when they cry, are aggressive, lie, or do not do well in school

one of the reasons parenting can be confusing is that there is little consensus in the united States today as to what children should be like when they grow up or what you do to get them there. Another reason parenting is confusing is that it is bidirectional and dynamic—an adult’s behavior toward a child is often a reaction to that child’s temperament and behavior, changing with time as the child develop

whereas parenthood is universal, parenting is highly variable among diferent cultures and groups within societies. The purpose of examining the macrosystem influences on parenting is to provide an understanding of political, socioeconomic, culture, ethnic, and religious values or practices that, indirectly, have contributed to children’s socialization and developmen

Political ideology refers to theories pertaining to government. It influences parenting styles because children must be raised to function as citizens in society.

Most traditional societies subscribe to an aristocratic political ideology, or govern­ment by the highest-ranking class of individuals in a society; hereditary monarchs serve as heads of state

. A society in which one person has unlimited power over others is an autocracy. In an autocracy, relationships between people are understood in terms of a pecking or­der. The autocratic traditional family system follows such an order. The father is the authority who has power over the mother and the children; women and children have few rights.

Many modern societies, such as the united States, subscribe to a democratic political ideology. A democracy is a society in which those ruled have power equal to those who rule; the principle is equality of rights. In a democracy, relationships between people are based on consensus and compromise. The democratic modern family system considers the rights of all members.

Religious influence, National influence, Ethnic influence, Progressive influence.

n occupational role is a factor in socioeconomic status. when one performs a role, one takes on the behavioral expectations of that role through the process of socialization. For example, army oficers will behave in an authoritarian manner, giving commands, whereas lawyers will use logic, reason, and explanation in performing their role

ohn also found parent-child relationship diferences in middle- and lower-class families, most likely due to the diferent characteristics required in middle- and lower-class occupations. Generally, middle-class parents emphasize more self-direction for the child; lower-class parents emphasize more conformity. Specifi­cally, kohn found that middle-class parents were more concerned with their children’s motives and the attitudes their behavior seemed to express, whereas lower-class parents were likely to judge their children’s behavior in terms of its immedi­ate consequences and its external characteristics. He also found that middle-class parents were more likely than lower-class parents to want their children to be considerate of others, intellectually curious, responsible, and self-controlled, whereas lower-class parents were more likely to want their children to have good manners, to do well in school, and to be obedient

suggest that parents’ work­places afect their perceptions of life and the way they interact with family members. Consequently, parenting styles tend to be extensions of the modes of behavior that are functional in the workplace for parents.

, collectivistic cultures emphasize interdependent relations, social responsibilities, and the well­being of the group; individualistic cultures emphasize individual fulfillment and choice.

Collectivistic and individualistic orientations are exhibited by how diverse families difer in parenting styles and child-rearing practices (see Table 4.1 for a summary). For example, children socialized in a collectivist context are amused by people—by being held, teased, or shown how to do something; children socialized in an individualistic context are amused by things—by being given space, given toys, or told how to do something (Trumbull et al., 2001). Exemplifying a collectivistic orientation, at our university department’s fall welcome picnic for faculty and students, I observed an Israeli parent trying to keep her 2½-year-old child occupied and away from the cooking area by continually talking to him. He was quite verbally adept for his age, and the attentive conversation seemed to distract him from examining the barbeque. Exemplifying an individualistic orientation, the American preschool-age children at the picnic were given toys to play with while their parents talked and cooked.

Some generalizations follow regarding collectivistic and individualistic cultural/ ethnic/religious orientations, as well as the specific family dynamics within them. These include diferences in (1) authority roles, (2) communication, (3) display of emotion, (4) discipline/guidance of children, and (5) skills emphasized (Bugental & Grusec, 2006; Parke & Buriel, 2006; Rogof, 2003; Thiederman, 1991). Variations within the generalizations encompass the degree of adherence to traditional cultural/religious ways, the degree of assimilation into, and adoption of, mainstream ways, and the de­gree to which values are adopted from another ethnic group or religion

1. authority role Social roles are ascribed based on hierarchy (age and status respected). Family structure is patriarchal, influenced by principles of order regarding roles and behavior. Particularism is valued (individuals treated diferently according to rank, gen­der, and/or situation); authority figures have more rights and privileges, as well as having more obligations and responsibilities to protect and care for others; mothers, grandparents, teachers each do certain things.

2. relationships Harmony is valued. Family members place family needs above individual needs. Children show obedience and loyalty to parents and are expected to care for elderly parents. People believe that a cooperative social network extends from the mother and father union to the extended family of relatives and ultimately to the commu­nity; children are socialized by the extended, as well as the nuclear, family; old people traditionally pass on the cultural heritage to the younger ones; children are taught to respect elders (age is a “badge of honor”—if you have grown old, you have done the right things).

3. Communication Communication tends to be more indirect than direct—conversations might include inquiries about family members, health, or other matters seemingly unrelated to the purpose of the communication (such inqui­ries are necessary for assessing choice of language to be used and degree of familiarity with which certain topics can be discussed) (Stewart & Bennett, 1991). nonverbal, more than verbal, communication (body language, gestures, touch, facial expression, eye contact) is use

4. Displays of emotion Some groups display emotions inwardly and others display them outwardly. Inward emotions are feelings rarely shown publicly; they can be expressed through a change in personal distance (stepping backward while engaged in a loud conversation), shunning (ignoring and avoiding a friend for boasting), or deviations in performing routines (knowing your wife is angry because she filled your teacup only halfway with lukewarm tea). outward emotions are expressed through facial expressions, sound, body move­ment (however, facial expressions don’t always reveal inner emotions).

5. Discipline/Guidance Age is equated with knowledge—children are not asked their desires, nor are they expected to communicate their opinions to older people; they are expected to be guided by adult wisdom. Children obey and imitate; they learn by doing—even when children play, an adult or older sibling is nearby to guide them as needed (Rogof, 2003). A sense of obligation to parents is fostered by dependency and physical closeness between parents and child, which is continually reinforced as children grow older. The use of shame and guilt is enabled by the child’s dependency on the mother; she controls the child’s behavior by appealing to the child’s sense of duty when the child deviates from her expectations. The child also learns related socialized behaviors to avoid shame and save face— reluctance to admit lack of understanding, hesitation to ask questions, take initia­tive, or do something a new way, and avoidance of confrontation or disagreement (a Japanese proverb says: “The nail that sticks out gets hammered down”)

6. skills emphasis Skills believed important for children to learn to get along in the group, as well as to become contributing adults, are brotherhood, sharing, spirituality, and personal integrity. Modesty and moderation are stressed (one doesn’t talk for the sake of talking; one doesn’t boast when one achieves; and one doesn’t show emotions). Children are expected to do what they are capable of doing for their age, not to be perfect—the goal is to improve on past performance (failure is not a concept

Family dynamics refers to what activities are going on, with whom, and how they “play out” over time. As discussed in Chapter 3, the structure and functioning of the family as a whole afect parenting. Here we discuss the particular characteristics of family members and how these members relate to one another, which also afect parenti

. when one becomes a par­ent, one rediscovers some of one’s own experiences in childhood and adolescence— for example, making snowmen, playing hopscotch, playing hide-and-seek, and running through the sprinklers on a hot day. when one becomes a parent, one’s experience is expanded. Like a game involving strategies and counterstrategies, par­enting requires continual adaptation to children’s changing capacities. Parenting is time-consuming and dificult; it is also joyful and satisfying. Children are loving, open, and curious. what could be more gratifying than the first handmade card your child gives you that says “I luv u,” or when your grownup child asks for your advic

. age and Cognitive Development, temperament, Gender, Presence of a Disabilit

. Easy children displayed a positive mood and regularity in body function; they were adaptable and approachable, and their reactions were moderate or low in intensity. 2. Dificult children were slow to adapt and tended to have intense reactions and nega­tive moods; they withdrew in new situations and had irregular body functions. 3. Slow-to-warm-up children initially withdrew but slowly adapted to new situations; they had low activity levels and tended to respond with low intensity.

goodness-of-fit accommodation of parenting styles to children’s temperaments

Easy children tend to adapt well to various styles of child rearing. Dificult children need consistent, patient, and objective parents who can handle their instability. For example, instead of expecting very active, distractible children to concentrate for long periods of time on their homework, parents can reward them for shorter periods of work with pleasurable breaks in between, as long as the task is finished. Slow-to-warm-up children do best with a moderate amount of encouragement cou­pled with patience; parents and teachers should let these children adjust to change at their own pace

size, Configuration, Parents’ Life stage, marital Quality, Parental ability to Cope with stress