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CHAPTER 4 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - New knowledge (tacit) - exploration
      - Existing knowledge (explicit) - exploitation
    - - Purpose: Gathering know-how from experts so others can perform like them
      - The goal is to extract & render explicit procedural knowledge that comprise know-how
      - Using questionnaire, interview, surveys, observations, talk aloud
    - - Reducing a vast volume of content from diverse domains into a relevant, precise, easily useable sets of facts & rules
    - - Knowledge engineer interview the experts
      - Produce conceptual model of the critical knowledge
      - Translate the model into computer-executable
    - - Procedural knowledge – the HOW (process)
        
        to do things
        
        the diagnose (interpret symptoms)
        
        to make decision
        
        to prescribe (suggest solutions)
      - Declarative knowledge – the WHAT (object)
        
        is involved (things)
        
        is involved (persons)
        
        is the relationship (connections)
        
        When (time)
        
        Why (the reason)
      - The major task of knowledge engineer ;
        
        Solicit information from expert
        
        Analyzing information & knowledge flow
        
        Design & implement & maintain expert system
      - The experts responsibility ;
        
        Explain clearly critical knowledge & know-how
        
        What is needed when working with KE
        
        Introspective (self-observation)
        
        Patient
        
        Effective communication skills
      - 3 approaches to knowledge acquisition which have to be used simultaneously (Parsaye, 1998) ;
        
        Interviewing experts
        
        Learning by being told
        
        Learning by observation
      - Interviewing Experts
        
        Structured interview
        
        Interviewer must have strong communication & conceptual skills, and also know basic about the subject
        
        Using open & close questions
        
        The key is CLARITY
        
        4 techniques
        
        Paraphrasing
        
        restating of the perceived meaning of the speaker’s message using own words
        
        The goal is to check the accuracy with which the message was conveyed and understood
        
        Clarifying
        
        lets the expert know when the message was not immediately understandable
        
        The goal is for the expert to elaborate or clarify the original message so that the interviewer gets a better idea of the intended message
        
        Summarizing
        
        helps the interviewer compile discrete pieces of information and form a knowledge acquisition session into a meaningful whole
        
        The goal is to confirm that the expert’s message was heard and understood correctly.
        
        Reflecting feelings
        
        mirrors back to the speaker the feelings that seem to have been communicated.
        
        The goal is to clear the air of some emotional reaction or negative impact of the message which may cloud the real message of the expert for clearer communication
        
        Stories
        
        Telling of a happening or a connected series of happenings, whether true or fictitious (Denning, 2001)
        
        An organizational story can be defined as a detailed narrative of past management actions, employee interactions or other key events that have occurred and that have been communicated informally.
        
        Advantages
        
        promote knowledge sharing
        
        inform and/or prompt a change in behavior
        
        communicate the organizational culture
        
        create a sense of belonging
        
        provides a rich context, causing the story to remain in the conscious memory longer and creating more memory traces
        
        increase organizational learning
        
        communicate common values and rules
        
        serve as an excellent vehicle for capturing, coding and transmitting valuable tacit knowledge
      - Learning by being told
        
        Interviewees express & refine their knowledge
        
        Knowledge engineer clarify & validate
        
        Involves
        
        Domain & Task analysis
        
        Job specifications & descriptions
        
        looks at each key task an expert performs
        
        characterizes the tasks in terms of prerequisite knowledge/skills required, criticality, consequences of error, frequency, difficulty and interrelationships with other tasks and individuals, how the task is perceived by the person
        
        Process tracing & protocol analysis
        
        The way knower apply their knowledge
        
        asking the subject matter expert to “think aloud” . The information used, questions asked, actions taken, alternatives considered and decisions taken are the types of knowledge acquired in such sessions
        
        Simulation
        
        Model, software, maps, practices
        
        especially effective for later stages of knowledge acquisition, validating, refining and completing the knowledge capture process.
    - - Two types of expertise
        
        Motor-based
        
        Cognitive expertise
      - Present the problem, scenario, case to solved by the experts
        
        Knowledge can’t be observed, behaviour & expertise can
      - Using tools such audio & video could increase the successfulness of the process
        
        Screen capture
        
        Video or audio capture
      - 4 major organizational knowledge acquisition methodologies (Malhotra, 2000)
        
        Grafting
        
        Migrations of knowledge between firms (merger, acquisition, alliances)
        
        Vicarious learning
        
        One firm observing other firm’s demo of techniques & procedures
        
        Experiential Learning
        
        Knowledge acquisition within the firm by doing and practising it, based on repetition of experiences
        
        Refinement & improvement on the process (single loop)
        
        Inferential process
        
        Learning within the firm thru interpretation of event, states, changes, outcomes
        
        Deductive & experimental learning, establish causal links between actions & outcomes
        
        Changing assumptions & frameworks (double loop)
    - - Ad hoc sessions
      - Road maps
      - Learning histories
      - Action learning
      - E-learning
      - Learning from others through business guest speakers
      - Benchmarking against best practices
- - - - Representation of the ‘mental model’ of a person knowledge
      - Process of how human mind makes sense of their complex environment
      - Allow expert to construct knowledge model
      - Clarify overwhelmingly complex concepts into manageable components
    - - Usually in the form of flowchart
      - Compact & efficient
      - Alternate paths indicate the impact of different decisions
      - Help to see all the known options and consequences clearly
      - Simplify seemingly complicated situations into influential choices
    - - Concepts viewed as building block of knowledge & expertise
      - Identify key concepts
      - Graphically presenting organizational concepts in any particular field
      - Explain the dependency of hierarchical concept
      - Prioritizing: The higher the concept, the more general
      - Sorting techniques
        
        Manual, automated
        
        Sorting card, cluster analysis (method of producing classification from data that are initially unclassified
      - Manual knowledge taxonomy
        
        Very flexible- can be viewed as a concept map or as a hierarchy.
        
        More complex; will therefore require more time to develop as it must reflect user consensus
        
        Object-oriented approach that allows lower or more specific knowledge to automatically incorporate all attributes of higher-level or parent content they are related to.
      - Automated knowledge taxonomy
        
        Most are based on statistical techniques such as cluster analysis to determine which type of content are more similar to each other and can constitute subgroups or thematic sets.
        
        Good solution if there is a large amount of legacy content to sort though.
        
        More expensive and still not completely accurate-will need to validate and refine for maximum usefulness.
        
        A number of tools are now commercially available for taxonomy construction.