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Global Politics - Coggle Diagram
Global Politics
Unit 4: Power and Development
4.1 Different types of power
Power is the ability to exert influence to make states do what they otherwise would not do
Hard Power
Hard power is coercive or commanding power. It includes military power (Russia's invasion of Crimea) or economic power (US sanctions on Iran)
Soft Power
Soft power is based on attraction and co-option (EU and UK), or cultural power (South Korea).
Smart Power
Smart Power is a combination of hard and soft power to get the most effective result
4.2 Significance of states in global affairs
A state can derive power from human or physical resourcecs, relationships, structural power
Great Powers inlcude states with huge resources and influence
Superpowers include countries like the USA which dominate the international order, backed up with alliances like NATO
Emerging powers include potential superpowers with growing economies and influence, such as BRICs (combined GDP of 20.8trn) (pop of 3.6bn)
4.3 Polarity
Unipolarity
There is one pre-eminent power which acts aggressively or benignly to maintain its power.
Realists believe this is a natural consequence of protecting oneself
A unipolar power can guarantee stability in an anarchic international order
Liberals think a dominant aggressive power causes conflict
Bipolarity
There are two major power blocs with equal power (US/USSR)
A balance of power is a natural guarantor of security for realists. Bipolarity causes security and peace through a balance of power
Liberals think a balance of power is an illusion and there is still constant competition and conflict, such as during the Cold War
Multipolarity
There are multiple power centres
Realists say multipolarity is inherently unstable. Intensifies the security dilemma as states' level of power constantly changes (World War I)
Liberals think multipolarity promotes co-operation and multilateralism.
Changing world since 2000
There was hope in a strong UN but reform has not materialised. The end of the Cold War meant communism collapsed in the East
Unipolar world
US has remained dominant and exerted its influence during the War on Terror. Largest economy ($21trn) and worldwide values. Home of worldwide instutitions like the UN and IMF
Multipolar world
Rise of BRICs, mainly China, resurgence of Russia in international affairs, rise of the EU, means that US power has dwindled, meaning power is more spread out (China investing $60bn in Africa)
Bipolar world
China and the US are the two largest economies and are vying for more influence. China wants to become a dominant player (South China Sea conflict)
4.4 Different systems of governance
Democratic States
Has free and faitr elections and a plurality of interests are considered. Abide by the rule of law and have freedom of speech. Protection of human rights. Eg UK
Semi-Democratic states
Have qualities associated with democracies but elections are not free and fair. May have lots of corruption and injustice. Freedom of speech and political protest may be suppressed. Eg Bangladesh
Non-democratic states
Absence of free and fair elections. No democratic qualities of freedom of speech and other civil liberties. Eg Saudi Arabia
Autocratic states
Rule by a single person or body, eg single parties or absolute monarchies. Protest and opposition is suppressed. Advancement is based on patronage. Eg North Korea
Failed state
Failed states do not have full control over their country. Lacks legitimacy and authority. Cannot provide basic services. Eg Somalia
Rogue states
Considered a pariah state which flouts international agreements. Considered dangerous and often intervened against. Eg Iran
Consequences of different types of states
Immanuel Kant thought that having a world full of democratic states would lead to peace as democracies are less war like. (Kantian Triangle)
Francis Fukuyama thought that the adoption of liberal democracy and capitalism were inevitable, as seen by the collapse of communism in 1989. (Third wave of democratisation)
Democracies promote peace by spreading common values and increasing discussion and debate rather than conflict. (Conflict between democracies eg Brexit)
The existence of non-democratic states makes the world more dangerous as it increases conflict and misunderstandings (China and COVID-19)
Conflict between types of states leads to disagreements over intervention and a lack of international co-operation (Russia supporting other regimes, like Assad's Syria)
4.5 Development and spread of ideas
Liberal democracy and the rule of law has spread across the globe
Rule of law first developed in England with the Magna Carta
Liberal democracy developed in the UK with the Civil War, Glorious Revolution, and reform acts of the 19th and 20th centuries.
Liberal democracy spread elsewhere with the American Revolution , French Revolution, and collapse of fascism and communism in Europe
Globalisation has increased the spread of ideas and awareness about liberal democracy. Contributed to democratic movements like Arab Spring
Francis Fukuyama's view that democracy is inevitable seemed convincing in 1989. However now it is less convincing with democractic backsliding and fundamentalism
Unit 6: Comparative Theories
6.1 Realism
State sovereignty
humans are selfish which leads to selfish states
Thucycides and Morgenthau argued that human nature is self-centered and people seek their own interests, and it is natural for states to act selfishly when they are uncertian about other's intentions
prisoner's dilemma means states should expect betrayal
Rationality
relations between states are based on the positive value for one's own state
Unitary Actors
it is always within a country's interest to increaese its own security
Amorality
states are amoral and are not guided by principles. Like Machiavelli said, states should ruthlessly pursue their own interests
States seek power
power is a zero sum gain so each state must compete for their own security. An imbalance of power creates conflict but a balance creates harmony.
International anarchy
there is no higher authority than the state, so they cannot be held accountable. Language of rights and responsibility is irrelevant since states cannot be brought to heel. Anarchy leads to conflict, like Hobbes' State of Nature
War is inevitable
When humans are selfish, conflict is inevitable. Lack of international authority and zero sum power game contributes
Security dilemma
States must always guarantee their own security. Neo-realists believe it is necessary to co-operate sometimes to achieve this, as it is the rational decision. However most alliances are doomed to fail due to mistrust
Thinkers
Thucydides
: States will increase their power whatever the cost. Melian Dialogue
Niccolò Machiavelli
: States must be driven by utilitarianism rather than moral principles
Carl von Clausevitz
: War is inevitable but can be done morally
Hans Morgenthau:
Power is the main goal of states and they are the main actors in the international system
Kenneth Waltz:
Neo-realist, sees alliances and interdependence as very important. Still thought world was anarchic. Superpowers exert hegemonic powers
John Mearsheimer
: All alliances are temporary and states will rationally act against each other. Need security for survival
6.2 Liberalism
Decline in conflict
deaths in conflict have dramatically fallen. Now mostly civil wars
Rise in democracy
most countries are now democracies. Democracies are usually much less aggressive than autocracies
Growth in trade
States are becoming increasingly interdependenct economically through trade. Conflict riskes economic collapse
IGOs
rise in IGOs shows states want to co-operate rather than war
Human nature
Humans are altruistic and willing to co-operate. Demonstrated by Rousseau's stag hunt scenario, where it is more logical to co-operate for greater gain
Harmony and balance
States, like humans, can act selflessly. States are not unitary actors but have a wide range of interests they express.
constitutional layout of a state affects its behaviour
states have chosen to avoid conflict through IGOs
Complex Interdependence
states' fates are tied up with each other. Complex web of interdependence with trade, IGOs, TNCs and globalisation.
Global governance
states are not necessarily the principal actors in the system. Global government is also driven by religion, social movements and the economy
IGOs
the state is in decline due to importance of other actors internationally. The decline of the state means there will be more opportunities for co-operation and thus peace.
Thinkers
Immanuel Kant:
A world of constitutional republics will bring peace (Kantian Triangle). Rights upheld by Rechtsstaat
Woodrow Wilson:
put great faith in IGOs to maintain world peace after WW1. Called for self-determination of small nations
Robert Keohane:
multilateral institutions are beneficial to states and help to create peace
Joseph Nye
: Complex interdependence, hard, soft and smart power.
6.3 Divisions between realists and liberals
Human Nature
Realists: Selfish and self-serving
Liberals: Altruistic and co-operative
Order and security
Realists: World is anarchic with no authority, apart from a hegemon or balance of power
Liberals: Co-operation and complex interdependence creates peace
Power
Realists: Finite amount of power, it is a zero sum game
Liberals: Power is unlimited pursuit does not create winners or losers
Likelihood of conflict
Realists: (Offensive neo-realists) Security dilemma means conflict is inevitable
Liberals: Stag hunt scenario means co-operation is more rational so conflict can be avoided
International Organisations
Realists: Doomed to fail or innefective due to lack of trust and pursuit of national interests. Dominated by a hegemon or great powers
Liberals: Growing in number and importance. Important for peace and co-operation
Significance of States
Realists: Principal actors in the international system. Reflect selfish human desires. Unitary and rational, not guided by morality or justice
Liberals: Not the only important actors. Declining in importnce. Not necessarily self-interested. Guided by moral principles
6.4 Anarchical states theory
System is anarchical
States do not accept a higher authority, leading to anarchy. However this does not necessarily mean there is conflict. Bull argued that a Society of State exists, which gives some sort of order among states
States are conscious of a shared set of interests so develop rules and norms. This is not global governance but more of a group of equals
6.5 Explainations offered by realism and liberalism
Unit 1: State and Globalisation
1.1 Nation State and national sovereignty
A nation is a self-identifying community that does not necessarily have political sovereignty or international recognition
A state is a political entity with sovereignty, defined territory and international recognition
There are many nations without states, such as Catalonia or Kurdistan
Nations and states often compete for territory based on what they think their nation should be - irridentism (Russia invades Ukraine 2014)
Lots of states go unrecognised, like North Cyprus or Palestine
States ostensibly have sovereignty, which means supreme authority over their internal affairs (Westphalian Sovereignty)
1.2 Globalisation
Processes & Factors
People
People travel and communicate more freely than ever before. They forge relationships across the globe and migrate everywhere.
Countries
Countries are more and more influenced by the decisions and co-operation with their neighbours. This is due to the intensification of cross-border processes
Institutions
IGOs and NGOs have proliferated hugely since the end of WW2, for example the UN, UNSC, WHO, WTO.
There are new regional organisations like the EU which are integrating regions together and solve common problems
NGOs have risen from around 130 in 1900 to 6,000, campaigning on a huge variety of issues
Culture
Culture diffuses across borders to even out differences between places. People listen to the same music and use the same technology (K-pop)
TNCs help spread Western culture across the world (McDonalds found in 120 countries)
Culture can spread much easier due to better technology and communications, and the shrinking world
Values such as liberalism and democracy have spread across the world (Arab Spring 2011 - Jasmine Protests in China 2011)
Economics
The post-war Bretton Woods system, created 1944, allowed for a system of international trade and economic globalisation
The collapse of communism and rise of economic neoliberalism and free trade has led to increased economic integration and co-operation, spearheaded by TNCs
Process is faciliated by advancing technology
Technology
Time and space has reduced in importance with advancing technology
In 2021, 60% of the world's population were active internet users
Information can spread instantaneously
Politics
More and more global governance is used to tackle shared problems like climate change (Paris Agreement 2015)
States arguably have more power when they pool their sovereignty (Cyprus and the EU during Belarus crisis)
Global governance gives states the power to fend off the negative effects of globalisation such as climate change and exploitative TNCs (EU ruled Apple had to pay $13bn in taxes)
Impacts on the state
States become bound by international law because it is in their interests to follow it so others do, so states can adopt the moral high ground and avoid diplomatic isolation (Geneva convention 1949)
States feel the effects of the socio-economic and environmental effects of globalisation (Economic, political cultural)
International community is now more willing to intervene in other countries through forcible or humanitarian intervention, with the R2P doctrine (Invasion of Iraq 2003)
States are more willing to pool their sovereignty to maintain their power over TNCs and common threats (EU member candidates eg Serbia, Montenegro)
1.3 Debates about globalisation
Hyperglobalisers
Globalisation is inevitable, regardless of whether it is a positive or negative process. States will become irrelevant. Critics say states are still relevant and are now pooling their sovereignty.
Sceptics
Globalisation is a myth and national economies and states are still the most significant. Trade is not a new phenomenon. Critics say there has been a real change in the world and its economy.
Transformationalists
Significant changes have occured but they have not changed the fundamental workings of the world. Critics say this is a watered down view
Realists
Globalisation is real but states are still the dominant players. Globalisation is making the world more unstable.
Liberals
Globalisation has the potential to bring about free trade, prosperity, peace, democracy, political freedoms, human rights. It is a win-win. Glad to see the decline of the state and an increase in co-operation.
Advantages of Globalisation
increased trade and greater choice of consumer goods at better prices (1950-2008, trade increased 27 fold)
more competition (Iphone vs Samseong)
more efficient production
increased capital and labour mobility
increased free movement and migration (Schengen area)
increased cultural exchange (Kpop)
net increase in income (poverty has been cut in half since 2000)
has lifted billions out of poverty
transfers industries to the developing world (new textile industrial parks in Addis Ababa)
transmission of ideas and democracy (Arab Spring 2011)
easier communications (Teams)
more global relationships (UN)
more international co-operation, NGOs and IGOs (Paris 2015)
Disadvantages of Globalisation
deindustrialisation in developed countries (Detroit and Japan)
xenophobia from migration (Front national)
increase in inequality as a nation develops (China Gini 47)
cultural erosion (Morris dancing)
increased environmental destruction (Chinese fishing plant in Sierra Leone rainforest)
1.4: Solutions offered by globalisation
Globalisation and free market reforms have lifted over a billion people out of poverty since 1990. However inequality has increased as TNCs profit and countries develop unequally
Globalisation has decreased conflict in that states are more economically integrated and co-operative. However in other states it has caused a rise in nationalism or anger at economic inequality
Ideas and awareness of human rights has spread across the globe
Increase in middle class has intensified climate change but globalisation means that there is increased co-operation against it
Unit 5: Regionalism
5.1 Regionalism
Different forms of regionalism
Economic regionalism focuses on trade blocs and economic integration
Security regionalism involves increasing interdependence to make war and conflict impossible
Political regionalism involves uniting states with similar political outlooks
There is often significant overlap between the types of regionalism, like the EU
Debates about regionalism
Regionalism precipitates globalisation, which is seen as a positive and negative thing
Arguably undermines sovereignty and democracy by pooling sovereignty to a higher power (Cassis de Dijon)
Regionalism can combat globalisation's negatives (Increased state power)
Regionalism has increased nationalism, such as Brexit
Regionalism is still popular, many states want to join the EU
Some regional bodies are limited in efficacy, such as ASEAN in combating civil rights abuses in Myanmar
Shared issues like climate change will only get more important (Paris 2015)
There is a revival in fears of anti-democratic states like Russia and the PRC. Regionalism will help offset their power (EU defends Baltics)
There is a lack of accountability for regional organisations
Impact on Sovereignty
Types of sovereignty
De jure
There is no obligation of states to be in regional organisations and can leave at any time, eg Brexit
De facto
States give up sovereignty by pooling it in order to co-operate
National
Sovereignty is given up by pooling it
Internal
States might lose total jurisdiction over their own territory, such as through higher rulings from the ECJ
Zero-sum
States have less sovereignty
Pooled
States increase the amount of sovereignty they have by pooling it and increasing their leverage
5.2 Development of Regional Organisations excl EU
NAFTA / UMSCA
Creates a free-trade area without tarriffs and barriers to trade between Canada, US, Mexico. NAFTO existed from 1994 - 2020, replaced by UMSCA.
AU
Effective from 2002. Wants to integrate African countries socially, economically and politically, staving off negative effects of globalisation. Rid continent of colonisation and promote unity and co-operation.
Arab League
Encourages co-operation and pursuit of common interests of Arab-speaking states. Has 22 states but is divided politically, especially over Syria, which has been suspended
ASEAN
Encourages socio-economic development in SE Asia, as well as peace and stability. Poolled sovereignty of members to fend off Chinese influence.
5.3 Development of the EU
Formation of the EU
1951:
European Coal and Steal Community Formed between Western European states. Integrated war supplies so conflict was impossible
1957
Creation of the European Economic Community with the Treaty of Rome
1986
Single market created and tarriffs removed
1993
Maastricht treaty establishes the EU, with four freedoms
1995
Schengen Area established
2002
Euro introduced
2004
European Consitution fails to materialise
Objectives of the EU are to prevent conflict, encourage interdependence and co-operation, preserve democracy (previously against Communism in Cold War), co-oprate on security with intent for a shared army
EU has gone from an economic union to a political union. Neo-functionalists say that each step of integration warrants further integration, meaning many advocate for a Federal Europe.
Institutions of the EU
European Commission: executive branch, led by 27 commissioners and a president. Proposes and implements laws
European Council: Heads of governments of member states. Make key decisions and set agenda
Council of the European Union: passes, amends and rejects legislation. Made up of members' government ministers
European Parliament: legislature made up from 705 directly elected MEPs. Votes on legislation and approves the commission
European Court of Justice: interprets EU law. Made up of 1 judge from each member state
Enlargement
UK entered EU in 1973
Largest enlargement took place in 2004, incorporating many Eastern Bloc states like Poland and Hungary into the EU
Most recent enlargement took place in 2013 with Croatia
Treaties
1957 Rome: Formed EEC
1986: Formed Single Market
1992 Maastricht: Formed EU with parlaiment, QMV, social chapter
1997 Amsterdam: Strengthened institutions
2000 Nice: Prepared for East expansion
2004: Failed constitution
2007 Lisbon: More powers and reforms for institutions
Economic Union
Euro has significantly integrated European countries together
Euro caused problems in Greece during the financial crisis, where the government had to be bailed out and accept austerity in order to save the currency and stop the crisis from spreading. Economy begins to recover in 2014
Supranational decision making
EU foreign policy, expansions and treaties require unanimity. Bulgaria blocking entry of North Macedonia
EU is sui generis in its supranational decision making, has the ECJ and EC. Regularly violates nations' sovereignty with their consent
The single market would not work without impacting on sovereignty - Cassis de Dijon
QMV: used by the council to make sure that decisions pass with 55% of member states that represent 65% of the EU's population. Encourages compromise and negotiations
5.4 Significance of the EU
Political influence
Most successful body of its kind. Countries conform to the EU's wishes if they want to accede. Can mould global standards through regulations - the Brussels Effect. Mould global opinions such as at climate conferences
Has 27 member states that have diverging interests. Still not a fully fledged state
Economic influence
Largest single market in the world. Has trade deals with huge global partners. Represented at the WTO.
Effected by flagging economies and debt, as well as euro crisis
Military influence
Most states are a part of NATO. Troops stationed around the world peacekeeping or in military interventions, such as in Mali
Separate national militaries. Not all are in NATO. Have different defence priorities, east wants defence against Russia