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PSYCHOLOGY - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Size Constancy
        
        Viewing objects as unchanging in their size even though their size of the image cast on your retina changes.
      - Shape Constancy
        
        Viewing objects as unchanging in their shape even though their shape of the image cast on your retina changes
      - Brightness Constancy
        
        Brightness constancy is our tendency to perceive an object as maintaining its level of brightness in relation to its surroundings.
    - - Figure Ground
        
        The tendency to perceive a part of a stimulus as more relevant, which is standing out against the background.
      - Closure
        
        The tendency to close up or ignore gaps in a visual stimuli to perceive it as a meaningful whole
      - Similarity
        
        The tendency to perceive parts of visual stimuli as belonging together because they are alike in shape, colour, texture or form
      - Proximity
        
        The tendency to perceive parts of visual stimuli that are positioned close together as a group
    - - Binocular Depth Cues (Require the use of both eyes to perceive depth)
        
        Retinal Disparity
        
        Refers to the difference in location of the visual images on the retinas - only works up to 10m because our eyes are 7 cm apart (The greater the disparity the closer the object to the eyes)
        
        Convergence
        
        Involves the brain detecting and interpreting depth from changes in the tension in the eye muscles, that occur when the eyes turn inward to focus on objects close (The brain interprets less tension in eye muscles as the objects gets further away and vice-versa)
      - Monocular Depth Cues (Require the use only one eye to perceive depth)
        
        Accomodation
        
        Allows us to judge depth and distance by measuring the amount that the lens bulges and flattens to focus on objects. For more distant objects the lens flattens and for closer objects the lens bulges.
        
        Pictorial Depth Cues
        
        Linear Perspective
        
        The apparent convergence of parallel lines as they recede into the distance that allows to judge depth.
        
        Interposition
        
        Interposition is when one object partially obscures another. The obscured object will be perceived as further away and vice-versa.
        
        Texture Gradient
        
        Objects that we perceive in finer detail are perceived as closer than those that are in less detail.
        
        Relative Size
        
        Objects that cast a larger image on the retina are perceived closer whereas objects that cast a smaller image on the retina are perceived smaller.
        
        Height in visual field
        
        Objects located closer to the horizon in the image are perceived as being further away than objects further away from the horizon
    - - Cornea
        
        Transparent convex shaped covering that protects the front of the eye and helps focus light rays on the retina
      - Aqueous Humor
        
        Watery fluid between cornea and the pupil. Helps provide nutrients to the eye and takes away waste products as well as maintain the shape of the eye ball
      - Pupil
        
        Opening in the middle of the iris that allows light to enter the eye. Helps control the amount of light entering the eye
      - Iris
        
        Ring of muscles surrounding the pupil. Help control the amount of light entering the eye by expanding and contracting the pupil
      - Lens
        
        A transparent, flexible, convex structure that focuses light on the retina. It also adjusts shape according to the distance of objects being viewed: bulges for nearby objects and flattens for far objects
      - Ciliary Muscles
        
        Attached to the lens. Helps adjust the shape of the lens
      - Vitreous Humor
        
        Helps maintain the shape of the eyeball
  - - - Behavioural
        
        When the behaviour affects the affective component (For example, if you accidentally hurt someone you are more likely to feel bad or sorry).
        
        Discrimination
        
        Negative/discriminative behaviour aimed towards an individual/minority or a group.
        
        Direct
        
        Discrimination that is intentionally directed towards a minority or a group
        
        Indirect
        
        Discrimination that happens unintentionally towards a minority or a group
      - Cognitive
        
        Stereotypes
        
        Generalisations made about someone/minority or a group
      - Affective
        
        Cognitive Dissonance
        
        The uneven feeling of when the three components are not consistent with each other - mostly the behavioural component is inconsistent with the affective and cognitive component.
        
        When the affective affects the behavioural component. (For example, if you care a lot about recycling, you are more likely to recycle)
        
        Prejudice
        
        Certain thoughts or feeling towards a minority/individual or a group. It can be negative or positive
        
        Old-Fashioned
        
        Prejudice is that is directed (voiced) at a group / person openly
        
        Modern
        
        Prejudice that is hidden or subtle
    - - Classical Conditioning
        
        Learning through association (Unconscious learning)
      - Operant Conditioning
        
        Learning through reward punishments (Conscious learning)
      - Modelling
        
        Learning through the observation of another's actions OR using the observation of another's actions to model their own future thoughts, feelings or behaviour.
      - Repeated Exposure
        
        Learning through repeated exposure / exposure effect
  - - - Factors
        
        Group Size (4-12)
        
        Unanimity
        
        Normative Influence
        
        Informational Influence
        
        Deindividuation
        
        Cultural influence (collectivist vs individualistic)
        
        Social Loafing
    - - Factors
        
        Social Promixity
        
        The more closer (physically and emotionally/relationship) you are to the authority/person, the more likely you are going to obey them.
        
        Group Pressure
        
        If more people in group obey a figure/person, you are more likely to be compelled to obey them too.
        
        Legitimacy of Authority Figure
        
        The more legitimate a person is perceived in a field, the more likely an individual will obey them.
    - - Types of Power
        
        Reward
        
        Coercive
        
        Referent
        
        Legitimate
        
        Informational
        
        Expert
    - - Personal Factors
        
        Mood
        
        Your mood can affect how you display prosocial behaviour. You are more likely to be kind when you are in a positive mood than a negative mood (this also depends - you can be more willing to help in certain types of negative moods).
        
        Empathy
        
        To what extent you can sympathise with an individual in a certain situation, affects your ability to help them/display prosocial behaviour. This depends on both the individual and situation.You see a driver in a car accident, but it was their fault the accident occurred in the first place.
        
        Competence
        
        You perceived ability to help/aid someone. You see someone drowning and you want to help but you cannot swim.
      - Situational Factors
        
        Bystander Effect
        
        The phenomenon when individuals (bystanders) are less likely to give help to the victim when there are other individuals present around the situation. This phenomenon has a greater chance of occurring with more people around.
        
        5 steps to helping
        
        Step 1: Noticing the situation
        
        Step 2: Deciding whether the individual in the situation needs help
        
        Step 3: Taking the responsibility to help
        
        Step 4: Deciding whether you have the skills to help / have the ability to give help to the individual
        
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        If any of these step cannot be done / are not chosen to be done, help is not provided
      - Social Norms
        
        Social Responsibility Norms
        
        It is a rule of you to display/not display prosocial behaviour via ethics and morals. It is your duty in society to help someone who has fallen down.
        
        Reciprocity Norm
        
        You are likely to repeat positive behaviour towards somebody who acted with positive behaviour towards you. If someone gives you a gift, you are more likely to give them a gift back
    - - Audience Inhibition
        
        When a bystander or an individual does not want to intervene in a situation because they are afraid of embarrassing themselves in front of the crowd / other bystanders.
      - Diffusion of responsibility
        
        When a bystander or an individual does not want to intervene in a situation because they think other bystanders can help / wait for other bystanders to help. Has a greater chance of occurring with there are more people around.
      - Cost-Benefit Analysis
        
        Weigh up the pros and cons. Pros vs Cons
      - Social learning theory
        
        Observing behaviours of others and then imitating them.
  - - - Variables
        
        IV
        
        Affects
        
        (Independent Variable) Variable that is manipulated or changed.
        
        DV
        
        (Dependent Variable) Variable that is being measured or tested in an experiment.
        
        EV
        
        Can Affect
        
        (Extraneous Variable) Variable that is not the IV that affects the DV.
        
        CV
        
        Can Systematically affect the entire experiment without knowing.
        
        (Confounding Variable) Variable other than the IV, which has had an effect on the participant performance on the DV, which therefore affects the results of an experiment in an unwanted way. They are usually unknown unless research or another experiment was done to prove its existance.
        
        Controlled Variables
        
        Variables that are not changed (stay constant) in the experiment
      - Methodology
        
        Experimental Group
        
        Group that is exposed to the IV.
        
        Control Group
        
        Group that is not exposed to the IV.
        
        Aim
        
        A general statement on what is the IV what DV will it affect
        
        Results
        
        Discussion
        
        Conclusion
        
        State if the hypothesis was supported or not and back it up with evidence from the results
        
        Generalisations
        
        To what population of the real world can the experiment work on / be valid towards.
        
        Reliability
        
        Validity
        
        Internal
        
        How valid was the experiment itself, within the experiment
        
        External
        
        Ecological
        
        Population
        
        Hypothesis
        
        A more directed version of the aim / state how the IV will affect the DV
    - - Observing something in its natural habitat
    - - Survey
      - Ouestionare
      - Interview
    - - Independent Groups
        
        Participants are randomly allocated into a control and experiment group
      - Matched Participants
        
        Participants allocated into a group according to a matching characteristic / feature
      - Repeated Measures
        
        Participants in both groups go through experimental and control (to reduce bias)
      - Population
        
        Sample
        
        Sampling
        
        Stratified
        
        Convenience
        
        Random
        
        Random-Stratified
        
        Biased Sample
- - - - Brain - If this does not exist you dont either
        
        Midbrain
        
        Forebrain
        
        Cerebrum - Largest part of the brain, consisiting of the two cerebral hemispsheres
        
        Cerebral Cortex (Outer layer)
        
        Cortical Areas
        
        Temporal lobe - Processing sounds, some areas of language, and memory
        
        3 more items...
        
        Occipital lobe - Visual perception like colour, form, and movement of stimuli.
        
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        Frontal lobe - Responsible for personality, complex motor skills and cognitive thinking (thoughts)
        
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        Parietal lobe - Responsible for processing sensory information and spatial awareness (space, touch, temperature, pain).
        
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        Left Hemisphere
        
        Specialised in language, logic, controlling the right side of the body
        
        Right Hemisphere
        
        Specialised in creativity, holistic perception and thinking, controlling the left side of the body
        
        Thalamus
        
        Responsible for relaying sensory and motor signals, as well as regulation of consciousness (and sleep) and alertness.
        
        Hypothalamus
        
        Plays a role in homeostasis, like hormone production, heart rate, blood pressure,
        body temperature
        
        Amygdala
        
        Processing memories, emotions and stimuli associated with fear / as a threat.
        
        Hippocampus
        
        Plays a major role in learning and memory (like conversion of short-term to long-term)
        
        Hindbrain
        
        Medulla
        
        Responsible for transmitting signals between the spinal cord and the higher parts of the brain and in controlling autonomic activities, such as heartbeat and respiration.
        
        Pons
        
        Works with the medulla to generate the respiratory rhythm of breathing
        
        Cerebellum
        
        Coordinates voluntary movements such as posture, balance and coordination
        
        Brain stem - Connects the cerebellum and spinal cord to the brain
        
        Plasticity - The ability of the brain to adapt to environmental and developmental changes
        
        Adaptive Plasticity - Occurs after brain damage. Changes in the neural structure that enables adjustment to compensate for the loss of functions in the damaged areas of the brain.
        
        Rerouting
        
        Undamaged neurons that lost their connection forming new synapses / connections with other undamaged neurons in the brain
        
        Sprouting
        
        Neurons growing more bushier dendrites
        
        Developmental Plasticity - Occurs right after birth to early childhood, and during adolescence. 5 stages
        
        Stage 1: Proliferation - Neurons dividing and multiply, happens right after birth
        
        Stage 2: Migration - Neurons moving to their destined location
        
        Stage 3: Circuit Formation - Axons growing out and forming new synapses
        
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      - Spinal Cord
    - - Autonomic Nervous System
        
        Sympathetic Nervous System
        
        Activates the flight-or-fight response under stress conditions
        
        Increases heart rate, breathing rate, alertness, dilated pupils. Stops the process of digestion
        
        Parasympathetic Nervous System
        
        Function to bring the body back to rest (opposite of SNS, activates after the stress / stressor is gone)
        
        Reduces heart and breathing rate to normal, process of digestion restarts.
      - Somatic Nervous System
    - - Sensory Neurons
        
        Connected to the surface of the skin, receive sensory messages and relay them to the CNS.
      - Interneurons
        
        Receive messages and process them and respond, as well as transmit them up to the brain if necessary
      - Motorneurons
        
        Aid with motor skills, movements (associated with the voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles)
    - - Schwann Cells
      - Oligodendrocytes (oligodendroglia)
        
        Produce the myelin sheath to insulate and protect and support neural axons in their respective Nervous System divisions
      - Astrocytes (Astroglia)
        
        Form the blood–brain barrier, provide nutrients to neurons, play a role in the repair process of the brain and spinal cord following a injury.
  - - - Piagets Theory
      - Scehma
        
        Assimilation
        
        Accomodation