Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
Motivation and leadership - Coggle Diagram
Motivation and leadership
Motivation
the force that energises, directs and sustains behaviour (motivation gets people to take actionable steps (behaviours) on the path to their goal and it keeps this behaviours ongoing)
"need" theories
David McClelland's achievement motivation theory
Thematic Apperception Test
projective test that uses ambiguous pictures to assess psychological motivation
unreliable, participants can interpret the picture differently, people who wrote more tend to have higher scores on achievement (criticise both test and his variation of the test)
Achievement
the drive to accomplish more
likes solo jobs, jobs that fix big problems
affiliation
the desire to be accepted by others
like support service team, all cooperation, safety and security
power
the need to direct and control the activities of others
institutional power
for the organisation
personal power
for their own personal end
like the army they need to be in a job which can control things
everyone has a bit of every need, but everyone has a predominant need, and more attention has to be given to that need to increase work motivation
Leaders must be responsive to the different needs of the employees to better improve their work motivation
need theories based on the understanding that organisms have a drive for certain psychological and physiological needs and by fulfilling them, and the process of interactions between organism and need becomes the motivation
basic needs theories
Abraham Maslow's Hierachy of Needs (1965)
5 hierachy(tiers), starting from the basic to more higher order needs. Theory explains that one needs to clear the basic needs step by step in order to carry on to the higher order needs. e.g. food,water before security, socialisation
physiological, safety, social needs are lower order (also known as deficiency needs). self actualisation and esteem (growth needs)
highly skilled, successful workers are still motivated because of the need to self growth, to reach the higher hierachies.
physiological, safety, social, esteem, self actualisation
Clayton Alderfer's ERG Theory (1972)
Existence needs (physiological cum safety), Relatedness needs (social), Growth needs (esteem and self actualisation)
these theories have not found much application in improvements to work related strategies because it is good at distinguishing and catergorising the various needs, but these theories have not been shown to be predictable in many situations. e.g. some people can be motivated for safety needs even when not clearing physiological needs
Behaviour theories
Reinforcement theory
positive reinforcers
compensation, praise
negative reinforcers
avoid bad situations, i.e. staying late in the office, avoid being piled with work
applied through organizational behaviour modification programmes
based on operant conditioning, behaviour is motivated by its consequences, hence tweaking consequences to obtain desirable behaviours
punishment
used to reduce the tendency of the behaviour. punishment is providing a negative consequence to the specific behaviour
chronic use of punishment can create feelings of hostility and resentment in workers and reduce morale and job satisfaction
punished workers may try to retaliate and “get back” at punitive supervisors
punishment tends only to suppress behavior; once the threat of punishment is taken away, the worker may continue to use the undesirable behavior
continual use of punishment leads to inefficient supervisors—ones who must spend too much of their time constantly “on watch” to catch workers committing undesirable behaviors and administer the punishment
women supervisors who use punishment are evaluated more harshly than their male counterparts, and the women’s use of discipline is perceived to be less effective
schedules of reinforcement
fixed ratio
fixed interval
variable interval
variable ratio
usually the best way to incorporate work motivation and task performance
Organisational behaviour modification
identify the behaviours
trained observers to measure the desired performance of these behaviours
constantly add reinforcement to these behaviours through graphs
evaluate the effectiveness of the program
limitations
focus on extrinsic rewards, people are also driven by intrinsic motivation, and therefore this lacks the sense of accomplishment/achievement when one gets the desired outcome
intrinsic motivation
self determination theory
autonomy
competence
relatedness
leads to greater job satisfaction and well being
Deci & Ryan
goal setting theory
the motivational theory that emphasizes the setting of specific and challenging performance goals, helps to focus attention on the task and as a result increase motivation
set a big challenging goal and splitting up into smaller measurable goals can motivate the people to work
if goals have been accepted by the workers
if workers work together to participate in goal setting, there will be more worker motivation than when the leader sets the goals
goals, however, should not be too high as the workers will not feel like they can achieve it and thus lose motivation
MBO (management by objectives)
critical focus on behaviour/external factors affecting motivation
Job design theories of motivation
Frederick Herzberg two factor theory of motivation
Motivators
elements related to job content that, when present, lead to job satisfaction
type of work; the level of responsibility associated with the job; and the chances for recognition, advancement, and personal achievement
Hygiene
elements related to job context that, when absent, cause job dissatisfaction
benefits, working conditions (including both physical and social conditions), type of supervision, base salary, and company policies
influenced by human relations movement train of thought, however criticized as it is hard to distinguish between motivators and hygienes (salary could be either side), also unable to replicate the presence of two distinct factors in subsequent tests
need both motivators and hygienes
Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristics model
moderators
growth need strength
the need and desire for personal growth on the job, those who do not have these "moderators" can skew the prediction of the model
must perceive their work as meaningful, associate a sense of responsibility with the job, and have some knowledge of the results of their efforts
the influences are then put under this formula MPS (motivating potential score) = (skill variety + task identity + task significance)/3
feedback
autonomy
three critical psychological states—meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results—that in turn lead to motivation and certain work outcomes, such as the motivation to work, improve performance, and grow on the job
influences
skill variety
task identity
task significance
autonomy
feedback
Job diagnostic survey
limitations
correlation not causation
self report method
application
Job enrichment
motivational program that involves redesigning jobs to give workers a greater role in the planning, execution, and evaluation of their work
increasing the level of responsibility associated with jobs, as well as the workers’ sense of freedom and independence.
allowing workers to complete an entire task or function
Providing feedback so that workers can learn to improve their own performance
Encouraging workers to learn on the job by taking on additional, more challenging tasks and by improving their expertise in the jobs they perform
led to job enrichment
raising the responsibility within the job
Cognitive theory of motivation
Equity theory
comparison others
underpayment inequity
increasing outcomes
changing the comparison other
decreasing input
leaving the situation
overpayment inequity
increasing inputs
decreasing outcomes
changing comparison others
distorting the situation (more often than not used)
workers are motivated to reduce perceived inequities between work inputs and outcomes
inputs and outcomes
influences
culture
individual
Entitleds
Equity Sensitives
Benevolents
Expectancy theory
Valence
desirability of the outcome
Instrumentality
perceived relationship between the performance of a particular behavior and the likelihood of receiving a particular outcome
Expectancy
perceived relationship between the individual’s effort and performance of a behavior
cognitive theory of motivation that states that workers weigh expected costs and benefits of particular courses before they are motivated to take action
basically motivation is a combination of variables
individuals are constantly aware of important elements in their work environment and that motivation is determined by a conscious processing of the information received
some people are more rational
nonrational manner
individuals may process differently too
when does motivation not lead to performance
lack of technology and system
individual ability
group dynamics
organizational variable
Leadership in the organisation
behavioural theories of leadership
leadership grid
a programme that stresses both task-oriented and
relationship-oriented behaviours as the keys to leader success
ohio
initiating structure (task oriented behaviour)
setting deadlines
breaking them into teams, defining group roles
behaviors that define, organize, and structure the work situation
consideration (relationship oriented behaviour)
asking how employees are feeling
leader behaviors that show a concern for the feeling, attitudes, and needs of followers
these two are independent of each other
limitation
fail to make predictions on leader behaviour and work outcomes in all work situations
too simplistic
only two catergories to define leader, both may or may not indicate leader effectiveness
michigan
task oriented behaviour and relationship oriented behaviour
difference between ohio and michigan studies
michigan studies found that relationship behaviours were more effective than task oriented behaviours.
in their study, they found that both led to increase work performance, but relationship oriented behaviour was shown to reduce turnover and increase job satisfaction
evaluation of theory
these two dimensions are vastly different and both link to effective management, such that both behaviours cannot be classified into one leader. Therefore one explanation is that different work requires different types of leader
Universalist theories (oldest leadership theory)
great man/woman theory
some people are natural born leaders
these people will rise to leadership positions because of their natural abilities
its a belief that person qualities and abilities make a person a great leader
little evidence, but many people believe in this because descendants of people with leadership roles are also put into position of power
trait theory
specifies certain personality traits or characteristics that are common to all effective leaders
traits
attributes associated with an individual’s makeup or personality
not possible to pinpoint a single trait and have it common amongst leaders as there are so many work variations, work setting differencse and different group of followers
possibly complex traits like flexibility and charisma are more likely to associate with leadership effectiveness
they are simplistic
and that they focus on individual leader characteristics
look for the major characteristics common to all effective leaders
according to Riggio, the ability to direct a group towards the attainment of goals
talking about effective leaders, can be formal or informal
contingency theories
Fiedler's contingency model
effective leadership depends on a match between the leader's style and the favourableness of the work situation
leader style is assessed through least preferred Co-worker (LPC), leader assesses his LPC, then the situation is assessed
leader member relations (quality of the relationship between leader and followers)
task structure (assessment of how well elements of the work task are structured)
position power (leader’s authority to punish or reward followers)
High LPC = relationship oriented, low LPC = task oriented
By Fiedler, high LPC works best in the middle situation, low LPC works best top and bottom situation in the Fiedler model
their take-charge style puts some structure into the circumstances and may encourage the group to perform the job
task-oriented leader has nothing to lose
Taking a firm hand and focusing on task performance and task-related goals may produce results, which is what is needed in such a crisis
ollowers might walk all over a relationship-oriented leader
groups are already likely to be productive because the task is straightforward and structured, relations between leader and members are good, and the leader has the power to reward for good performance
important that leaders be well equipped to deal with the interpersonal conflicts that inevitably arise
such situations may lack one of the three situational variables, a leader who shows increased concern for workers and allows them to voice opinions may increase group member satisfaction levels and even job performance
being task oriented in these situations may be counterproductive, alienating members and decreasing levels of satisfaction, because the leader appears to care only about the task
high-LPC leaders may be more cognitively complex, or better able to deal with complex situations, and therefore such situations(neither favourable nor unfavourable) are best handled by these leaders
criticisms
predictions hold up better in lab studies
middle-LPC leaders seemed to be effective in a range of situations
LPC is not clear exactly what it measures because it only infers a leader’s orientation from feelings about a coworker rather than directly assessing task and relationship orientation
we do not know how many real-world situations would be favorable or very unfavorable for the leader and thus demand a task-oriented leader
positive insights
first detailed contingency theory that sparked many research
theory that paid attention to the situation
Fiedler created Leader Match workbook
path goal theory
leader’s job is to help the work group achieve their desired goals(based off expectancy theory)
Directive behaviour (behavior that provides instructions and suggestions for performing a job) task-oriented
achievement-oriented behaviour (behavior concentrated on particular work outcomes) task-oriented
supportive behaviour (behavior focusing on interpersonal relationships and showing concern for workers’ well-being) Relationship oriented
participative behaviour (behavior that encourages members to assume an active role in group planning and decision making) Relationship oriented
evaluation
inability to make specific and precise predictions in actual work settings have been criticized
has not led to a specific type of intervention for use on the job
rather detailed, and further breaks up the simple dichotomy of relationship oriented and task oriented and situation factors
theories that look at the interaction of characteristics of both the leader and the situation
Decision making model
theory that matches characteristics of the situation with leader decision-making strategies
evaluation
too complex, further refined model makes it even more complex, very hard for managers to learn and use
this tool is similar to what effective managers have used to solve important work related decisions
unique combination of theory and application
leader’s individual behavior fits with the dynamics of a specific situation(specific to the decision)
highly detailed definition of the situation, as outlined by the decision-related questions
leader member exchange model
theory that effective leadership is determined by the quality of the interaction between the leader and particular group members
the worker is the situation
in group vs outgroup
low LMX and high LMX
evaluation
leaders act differently when they are with different subordinates
a focus on specific leader–member relations will lead to better predictions of the effects of that leader behavior on work outcomes
LMX approach generally emphasizes how a leader’s particular behavior with particular subordinates—both in-group and out-group members—affects their specific job outcomes.
LMX is a two-way street, with the quality of relationships being influenced by the effort and energy put into the relationships by both the leader and the follower
application
improve the quality of leader–member relationships
other leadership theories
charismatic leadership theory
states that leaders possess some exceptional characteristics that cause followers to be loyal and inspired
charismatic leaders have the ability to communicate shared group goals, and they convey confidence in their own abilities as well as those of their followers
charismatic leaders are able to provide vision toward a goal in uncertain situations
interaction of leader, follower and situation
transformational leadership theory
transactional leadership
leadership based on some transaction, such as exchanging money for work
inspires followers by providing a vision of where the group is headed and developing a work culture that stimulates high-performance activities
responsible for performance beyond ordinary expectations as they transmit a sense of mission, stimulate workers’ learning experiences, and inspire new and creative ways of thinking
focuses on the leader’s ability to provide shared values and a vision for the future for the work group
Inspirational Motivation
Intellectual Stimulation
Idealized Influence
Individualized Consideration
Both charismatic and transformational leadership may be particularly important for leading organizations through significant change processes
evaluation
both transactional and transformational leadership are associated with leader effectiveness
transformational leaders have extraordinarily successful work groups
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
biggest effort is placed to train leaders (change them) than change situations to fit leaders
teaching specific leader behaviours
training them to identify situations
job redesign
characteristics of the situation to fit the leader’s typical style or orientation
shared leadership
where leadership is shared among the group members rather than being centralized in one person
roles and procedures are well defined, substitutes for leadership, such as self-managing work teams, or shared leadership, may be appropriate