Behavioral Dimensions Classification
two major dimension: Anxiety–Withdrawal–Dysphoria and Schizoid–Unresponsive.

Prevalence
Prevalence rates for internalizing disorders of children and adolescents have been much more difficult to ascertain accurately than prevalence estimates for externalizing disorders.

The DSM Classification
The DSM system includes several general diagnostic categories that fit specifically within the internalizing domain, such as Depressive Disorders, Anxiety Disorders, Obsessive- Compulsive and Related Disorders, Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders and Somatic Symptoms and Related Disorders.

Gender Issues in Prevalence
Gender characteristics of internalizing disorders among younger children are much more speculative, however, with some studies showing no gender difference, some studies showing a higher prevalence among boys, and some studies showing a higher prevalence among girls

Causal Factors some of the crucial psychosocial variables or issues such as parental influences, life events, and family interaction patterns that are associated with depression in children.

Fears have been described as “reactions to perceived threats that involve avoidance of the threatening stimuli, subjective feelings of discomfort, and physiological changes”

Phobias are similar to fears in that they involve intense reactions to specific stimuli but are differentiated from fears in the sense that they are more persistent, maladaptive, and debilitating

Somatic Problems
There is a strong probability that persons who experience significant depression or anxiety have concurrent physical symptoms.

Fears and Phobias
(1) methodological problems of the research; (2) lack of gener- alizability concerning pathological mother–child relationships; and (3) lack of emphasis on possible external or ecological variables.

Social Withdrawal
One of the major correlates of depression and anxiety is social with- drawal or isolation.

Implications of Internalizing Disorders
“do not have the rather foreboding prognosis that is associated with undersocialized conduct disorders”

Positive affect has been defined as “the extent to which a person avows a zest for life”

Negative affect has been defined as “the extent to which a person reports feeling upset or unpleasantly aroused”

Behavior Rating Scales
The general-purpose instruments evaluated in Chapter 5 are recommended as the instruments of choice when objective third-party behavior ratings of internalizing problems are desired.
Given that social withdrawal often accompanies depression and anxiety, and that deficits in social competence may be correlated with internalizing problems, such an assessment strategy may be useful.

In sum, self-concept seems to be an important construct in the overall psychological and social functioning of children and adolescents, and it may have significant implications for youth with internalizing problems. Assessment of self-concept is an important clinical consideration.

Behavioral Observation
Although assessment of internalizing problems through methods other than self-report presents many problems, some internalizing characteristics can be observed directly, and there has been some experimentation with the use of behavioral observation codes for assessment.

Functional Assessment and Internalizing Problems
It is likely possible to develop a reliable framework for functional assessment of internalizing characteristic. In particular, the possible functional relationship between anxiety–depression and escape/ avoidance and social attention should be considered.

Interviewingthe most widely used method for the assessment of internalizing problems.
This study found that the highest rates of diagnostic accuracy were obtained when results from parent and adolescent versions of the interview were combined.

Sociometric Techniquesare best used as a screening device for identifying potentially at-risk children who might be administered further assessments.

The Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale, Second Edition (RADS-2)is a self-report measure of depressive symptoms for adolescents and young adults aged 11 to 20. It contains 30 items that are responded to in a 4-point format (“Almost never” to “All the time”) that were developed to coincide with depressive symp- toms from the DSM.

The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children, Second Edition (MASC-2)is part of a multi-source rating system for children aged eight to 19. Primary scales include Separation Anxiety/Phobias, Social Anxiety, GAD Index, Obsessions and Compulsions, Physical Symptoms, and Harm Avoidance.

The Reynolds Child Depression Scale (RCDS) and the Reynolds Child Depression Scale, SecondEdition(RCDS-2) is a self-report measure of depression-related symptoms for use with children in grades 3 through 6 (ages eight to 12). It contains 30 items that are rated using a 4-point scale (“Almost never” to “All the time”)

The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC) is a self-report assessment of trait anxiety and state anxiety for children aged nine to 12. consists of two separate scales with 20 items in each: one to assess state anxiety (how anxious the child feels at the time the inventory is being completed) and one to assess trait anxiety (how anxious the child feels in general).

The Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) and the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale, Second Edition (RCMAS-2) is a self-report instrument for use with children aged six to 17. It includes 37 statements that are responded to in a yes/no fashion and is designed to be a measure of trait anxiety (the tendency to be anxious over settings and time).

The Multidimensional Self-Concept Scale (MSCS) is a self-report instrument for assessing self-concept in a multidimensional fashion. The MSCS was developed for use by children and adolescents in grades 5 to 12 and includes 150 items.

The Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI) and the Children’s Depression Inventory-2 (CDI-2) is a 27-item self-report measure of depressive symptoms for use with school-age children and adolescents (aged six to 17).

The Self-Description Questionnaire I (SDQ-I) is a 76-item self-report inventory that is designed to provide a multidimensional measure of self-concept for children and preadolescents (aged eight to 12).

The Self-Description Questionnaire II (SDQ-II)is a companion instrument to Marsh’s SDQ-I, designed for use with adolescents (aged 13 to 17).

The Self-Perception Profile for Children(SPPC) is a self-report instrument designed to assess multidimen- sional self-concept in children aged eight to 15. The SPPC includes 36 pairs of statements that reflect opposing views of particular aspects of self-concept (e.g., “Some kids wish their body was different, BUT Other kids like their body the way it is”)

The Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents(SPPA) is a 45-item self-report instrument that is similar in design to the SPPC.