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Digestive and Urinary System, Monique Flores, Period 1 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Disease may alter smell
        
        Develops ammonia odor upon standing as bacteria metabolize urea
        
        May be altered by some drugs or vegetables
    - - ▪Urine is slightly acidic (~𝑝𝐻6, with range of 4.5 to 8.0)
      - ▪Alkaline diet (vegetarian), prolonged vomiting, or urinary tract infections can cause an increase in 𝑝𝐻
      - ▪Acidic diet (protein, whole wheat) can cause drop in𝑝𝐻
    - - Pale to deep yellow from urochrome
        
        Yellow color deepens with increased concentration
        
        Pigment from hemoglobin breakdown
      - clear
        
        Cloudy may indicate urinary tact infection
      - Abnormal color (pink, brown, smoky)
        
        caused by certain foods, bile pigments, blood, drugs
- - - - Absorbs end products of digestion
      - Protects against infectious disease
      - Secretes mucus, digestive enzymes, and hormones
- - - - Parietal cells
        
        secretes Intrinsic factor
        
        secretes Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
        
        activates pepsin
        
        breaks down plant cell walls
        
        denatures protein
        
        ills many bacteria
        
        pH 1.5–3.5
      - 3.Chief cells
        
        secretes Pepsinogen
        
        activated to pepsin by HCl and by pepsin itself
        
        a positive feedback mechanism)
        
        inactive enzyme
        
        secretes Lipases
        
        Digests ~15% of lipids
      - Mucous neck cells
        
        Secrete thin, acidic mucus
      - Enteroendocrine cells
        
        Secrete chemical messengers into lamina propria
  - - - Digestive enzymes
        
        Amylase (for carbohydrates)
        
        Lipases (for lipids)
        
        Proteases (for proteins):
        
        secreted in inactive form to prevent self-digestion
        
        Nucleases (for nucleic acids)
      - Watery, alkaline solution (pH 8) to neutralize acidic chyme coming from stomach
- - - - Ensuring long-term acid-base balance
      - Excreting metabolic wastes, toxins, drugs
      - Regulating ion concentrations in extracellular fluid (ECF)
      - Producing erythropoietin(regulates blood pressure and renin(regulates RBC production)
      - Regulating total water volume and total solute concentration in water
      - Activating vitamin D
      - Carrying out gluconeogenesis,
- - - - Proximal convoluted tubule
      - Nephron loop
        
        U-shaped structure consisting of two limbs
        
        Descending limb
        
        Distal portion also called descending thin limb; simple squamous epithelium
        
        Proximal part of descending limb is continuous with proximal tubule
        
        Ascending limb
        
        Cuboidal or columnar cells
        
        Thick ascending limb
        
        Thin in some nephrons
        
        Formerly called loop of Henle
      - 3 main parts:
      - Distal convoluted tubule
        
        Function more in secretion than reabsorption
        
        Confined to cortex
        
        Cuboidal cells with very few microvilli
    - - Glomerulus
        
        Highly porous capillaries
        
        Allows for efficient filtrate formation
        
        Tuft of capillaries composed of fenestrated endothelium
        
        Filtrate: plasma-derived fluid that renal tubules process to form urine
      - Glomerular capsule
        
        Also called Bowman’s capsule
        
        Consists of two layers
        
        Visceral layer: clings to glomerular capillaries; branching epithelial podocytes
        
        Filtration slits between foot processes allow filtrate to pass into capsular space
        
        Extensions terminate in foot processes that cling to basement membrane
        
        Parietal layer: simple squamous epithelium
        
        cup-shaped, hollow structure surrounding glomerulus
      - Consist of Two parts:
  - - - Intercalated cells
        
        Two types of intercalated cells:
        
        A and B: both help maintain acid-base balance of blood
        
        Cuboidal cells with abundant microvilli
      - Principal cells
        
        Maintain water and 𝑁𝑎+balance
        
        Sparse with short microvilli
- - - - esophagus
      - stomach
      - pharynx
      - small intestine
      - mouth
      - large intestine
      - anus
  - - - chief function is storage of bile
    - - 3 types:
        
        Liver
        
        Bile: fat emulsifier
        
        digestive function is production of bile
        
        Pancreas
        
        supplies most of enzymes needed to digest chyme
        
        supplies carbonate to neutralize stomach acid
        
        Salivary glands
        
        Salivary glands are composed of two types of secretory cells
        
        Mucous cells: produce mucus
        
        Serous cells: produce watery secretion, enzymes, ions, bit of mucin
        
        Functions of saliva
        
        Dissolves food chemicals for taste
        
        Moistens food; compacts into bolus
        
        Cleanses mouth
        
        Begins breakdown of starch with enzyme amylase
      - Function: produce secretions that help break down foods
    - - Functions include:
        
        Formation of bolus, mixture of food and saliva
        
        Initiation of swallowing, speech, and taste
        
        Gripping, repositioning, and mixing of food during chewing
      - Lingual frenulum: attachment to floor of mouth
      - Tongue occupies floor of mouth
    - - Lips and cheeks
        
        Cheeks: composed of buccinator muscles
        
        Labial pendulum: median attachment of each lip to gum•
        
        Lips(labia): composed of fleshy orbicularis orismuscle
      - Palate
        
        1.Hard palate:
        
        formed by palatine bones and palatine processes of maxillae with a mid-line ridge called raphe
        
        2.Soft palate:
        
        Closes off nasopharynx during swallowing
        
        fold formed mostly of skeletal muscle
        
        Uvula: finger-like projection that faces downward from free edge of soft palate
        
        forms the roof of the mouth and has two distinct parts:
      - Also called the oral (buccal) cavity
        
        Walls of mouth lined with stratified squamous epithelium
        
        Oral orifice is the anterior opening
- - - - When needed, transported in blood by transferrin
      - Ionic iron is stored in mucosal cells with ferritin
  - - - Vitamin K and B vitamins from bacterial metabolism are absorbed
    - - Water-soluble vitamins (C and B) are absorbed by diffusion or by passive or active transporters
      - Vitamin B12(large, charged molecule) binds with intrinsic factor and is absorbed by endocytosis
      - Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) are carried by micelles; diffuse into absorptive cells
  - - - 95% is absorbed in the small intestine by osmosis
      - Most of rest is absorbed in large intestine