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((1670, Maryland colony, Maryland colony, A map from about 1700 shows…

- - - - 1788
        The British Empire gains new settlements in Australia. The empire’s Canadian colonies grow as loyalists from the United States emigrate to Canada after the American Revolution.
      - 1857–59
        Deep resentment toward British policies leads to a widespread but unsuccessful rebellion by the sepoys (native Indian soldiers employed by the East India Company) against British rule in India. Although the rebellion is stopped, it reveals the limits of the company’s power. After the Indian Mutiny the British government takes direct rule of India, beginning the period of the British raj. As a result, the company is dissolved, and India becomes an official British colony.
        
        1884–85
        
        European nations meet in Berlin to divide Africa. Britain wins the most territory, which stretches from South Africa to Egypt. In 1885 local Indian leaders form the Indian National Congress to promote independence from Great Britain.
        
        1899–1902
        
        South African War
        
        South African War
        
        British troops wade through the river at the Battle of Modder River in 1899 during the South African War.
        
        Photos.com/Thinkstock
        
        The South African War, or Boer War, erupts between British and Boer forces for control of two Boer republics—the South African Republic (Transvaal) and the Orange Free State. Although Great Britain wins the war, it proves longer and costlier than the British had anticipated.
        
        1910
        
        The dominion of the Union of South Africa is formed from the Cape Colony, Natal, and the former Boer republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State.
        
        1919
        
        Mahatma Gandhi becomes a leader of the Indian National Congress. He will eventually lead India to independence.
        
        1931
        
        British Empire
        
        British Empire
        
        A map shows the British Empire at its greatest extent.
        
        Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
        
        The term British Commonwealth of Nations is applied to largely self-governing dependencies that acknowledge an increasingly symbolic British authority. (The Commonwealth will ultimately evolve into a free, voluntary association of sovereign states that maintain ties of friendship and cooperation and that continue to acknowledge the British monarch as symbolic head of their association.)
        
        1947
        
        The Mountbatten Plan partitions the subcontinent into Hindu-controlled India and Muslim-controlled Pakistan on June 3. India gains independence on August 15, marking the end of British rule and the establishment of a free and independent Indian nation.
        
        1957
        
        The Gold Coast becomes the first sub-Saharan African colony to reach independence (as Ghana). The movement of Britain’s remaining colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean toward self-government gains speed in later years.
        
        1997
        
        Hong Kong: return to Chinese sovereignty
        
        Hong Kong: return to Chinese sovereignty
        
        Fireworks mark the return of Hong Kong to Chinese sovereignty on July 1, 1997.
        
        Vincent Yu/AP
        
        The last significant British colony, Hong Kong, is returned to Chinese sovereignty. By this time virtually nothing remains of the British Empire. The Commonwealth, however, remains a remarkably flexible and durable institution.
        
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        Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....
        
        William Pitt, the Elder (1708–78)
        
        William Pitt, the Elder
        
        William Pitt, the Elder
        
        William Pitt, the Elder.
        
        Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London
        
        William Pitt, the Elder, served as virtual prime minister of Great Britain for two terms, from 1756 to 1761 and again from 1766 to 1768. Pitt helped transform Britain into an imperial power, adding Canada and islands in the West Indies to the empire. During his first term he helped lead Britain during the Seven Years’ War and was instrumental in Britain’s victory over France.
        
        Robert Clive (1725–74)
        
        Robert Clive
        
        Robert Clive
        
        Robert Clive.
        
        Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London
        
        Robert Clive was a British soldier and colonial administrator. In 1743 he was sent to Madras (Chennai) for the East India Company, where hostilities between it and the French East India Company allowed him to demonstrate his military skills. He made a fortune and returned to England in 1753 but was sent back to India in 1755. In 1757 his victory over the nawab, or ruler, of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey made him the virtual master of Bengal. His first government lasted until February 1760. Back in England, he was elected to Parliament (1760) but failed to become a national statesman. He returned to India as governor and commander in chief of Bengal (1765–67). His reorganizing of the colony, including his fight against corruption, helped establish Britain’s power in India. He himself was attacked by Parliament on charges of corruption; though exonerated, he later committed suicide.
        
        Warren Hastings (1732–1818)
        
        Warren Hastings worked for the English East India Company from 1750, rising to membership in its council in Bengal (1761–64) and Madras (now Chennai; 1769). As governor of Bengal (1772–74), he moved the central government to Calcutta (now Kolkata) under direct British control and remodeled the justice system. In 1774 he acquired the new title of governor-general, with responsibilities for supervising other British settlements in India. His powers were shared with a council of four, several of whom tried to blame Hastings for the continuing abuses of power by Englishmen. From 1777 to 1783 he sought to counter the instability created by the fall of the Mughal Empire and tried to maintain peaceful relations with neighboring states but was drawn into the Maratha Wars. This disrupted the company’s trade and antagonized opinion in England, as did several dubious ventures Hastings entered into to raise extra funds. In 1785 he left India at peace and retired to England. In 1786 Edmund Burke introduced charges of corruption against him; after a trial that lasted from 1788 to 1795, Hastings was acquitted.
        
        William Pitt, the Younger (1759–1806)
        
        William Pitt, the Younger entered Parliament in 1781 and served as chancellor of the Exchequer (1782–83). He was appointed prime minister in 1783 and undertook reforms that reduced the large national debt incurred by the American Revolution, reduced tariffs, placed the East India Company under government control, and restructured the government in India. Forced into conflict with France by the French Revolutionary Wars, he formed a series of coalitions with European states against France. Pitt responded to demands by radicals for parliamentary reform with repressive measures. In 1800 he secured the Act of Union with Ireland but resigned the following year. His second term as premier (1804–06) was marked by the collapse of the Third Coalition—an alliance with Russia, Sweden, and Austria against France—after the Battles of Ulm and Austerlitz.
        
        Queen Victoria (1819–1901)
        
        Queen Victoria
        
        Queen Victoria
        
        Queen Victoria.
        
        Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
        
        Queen Victoria was the queen of Great Britain and Ireland from 1837 until her death in 1901. During her reign Britain expanded its imperial reach and experienced great cultural expansion, advances in science, industry, and technology, and the development of railways. By the time she was queen, Britain governed Canada, large areas of India, Australia, and small parts of South American and Africa. Queen Victoria added to her royal title Empress of India. During the 1870s, in search of new markets to trade with and facing competition from Germany and France, Britain set out to gain control over new overseas territories, particularly in Africa. By the end of the 19th century the British Empire was the largest the world had ever seen, and Queen Victoria was head of nearly a quarter of the world’s people.
        
        Joseph Chamberlain (1836–1914)
        
        Joseph Chamberlain
        
        Joseph Chamberlain
        
        Joseph Chamberlain.
        
        Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London
        
        Joseph Chamberlain was elected to Parliament (1876–1906), where he became a leader of the left wing of the Liberal Party. In 1886, in opposition to Irish Home Rule, he joined other dissident Liberals (Liberal Unionists) to defeat the Liberal government. He used his control of the Liberal Unionists to pressure the subsequent Conservative government to adopt a more progressive social policy. As colonial secretary (1895–1903) he advocated for tax reform and a federated empire of self-governing colonies, helping pass the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act (1900). He resigned when his proposals for a tariff giving preference to imperial products were rebuffed by the government.
        
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        Decline of the British Empire
        
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        British Empire
        
        British Empire
        
        Great Britain built up the largest colonial empire in history and then lost most of it.
        
        Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz
        
        The British Empire was the largest, richest, and most powerful empire in world history. Several factors brought about its ultimate decline. The British Empire developed into the Commonwealth in the 20th century, as former British dependencies obtained sovereignty but retained ties to the United Kingdom.
        
        Dominions and the Commonwealth
        
        The idea of limited self-government for some of Britain’s colonies was first recommended for Canada by Lord Durham in 1839. This system by which some colonies are allowed to largely manage their own affairs under governors appointed by the mother country spread rapidly. It was put into effect in Canada in 1847 and later extended to the Australian colonies, New Zealand, and the Cape Colony and Natal in southern Africa. These colonies gained complete control over their internal affairs and in 1907 were granted the status of dominions. Under dominion status colonies were still part of the empire and held allegiance to the British crown but ruled themselves. These states became part of the British Commonwealth of Nations. The Commonwealth developed from the British Empire. By the 19th century the traditional British policy of allowing self-government in its colonies led to the existence of several dependent states that were populated with a significant number of Europeans accustomed to forms of parliamentary rule and that required large measures of authority. By 1931 these states were recognized as having special status within the empire, referred specifically to as a “British Commonwealth of Nations.” The rapid growth of nationalism in other parts of the empire from the 1920s produced a long series of grants of independence, beginning with India in 1947.
        
        Commonwealth: flag
        
        Commonwealth: flag
        
        Flag of the Commonwealth.
        
        In 1949 India adopted a constitution proclaiming it a republic. It desired to remain in the Commonwealth, but as a republic it could not recognize the British king or queen as its sovereign. Commonwealth heads of government agreed that as a republic India could continue its membership if it accepted the British crown as only “the symbol of the free association” of Commonwealth members. The word British was dropped from the name of the organization, and thereafter the official name was the Commonwealth of Nations or simply the Commonwealth.
        
        Nationalism and the End of Imperialism
        
        Nationalist movements in Asian and African colonies fought to end British rule and to gain independence. Mahatma Gandhi was leader of the nationalist movement against British rule of India and used nonviolent methods to fight for India’s independence. By the 1960s most of Britain’s territories had become independent countries. These areas of the empire now ruled themselves but most kept their ties to Britain as members of the Commonwealth.
        
        Competition with Other World Powers
        
        Competition for trade resources between European countries, particularly Great Britain and France, increased during the 18th century, but Britain remained powerful. At the start of the 20th century Britain’s power began to erode. Britain was increasingly challenged by many other industrializing nations. As Germany expanded its naval power, Britain saw its position as the dominant naval force of the world weaken. Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain attempted to gain Germany’s support for global collaboration and to reduce Franco-Russian pressure on the British Empire. Despite three attempts between 1898 and 1901, an understanding could not be reached between Britain and Germany.
        
        The First and Second World Wars
        
        After World War I ended the dominions signed the peace treaties for themselves and joined the newly formed League of Nations as independent states. When World War II broke out in 1939 the dominions made their own declarations of war, separately from Britain. Many parts of the empire contributed troops and resources to the war effort and took a growing independent view. Both wars left Britain weakened and less interested in its empire. Although Great Britain emerged as one of the victors of World War II, it had been economically devastated by the conflict. The British Empire gradually gave way to the Commonwealth.
        
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        1840
        New Zealand becomes officially British, after which systematic colonization there follows rapidly. Partly owing to pressure from missionaries, British control is later extended to Fiji, Tonga, Papua, and other islands in the Pacific Ocean.