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Exam 3 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - ventral tegmental area (VTA)
    - - nucleus accumbens
    - - controversial surgery: remove nucleus accumbens
      - drugs
  - - - scientific study of behavior
    - - action in response to stimulus
      - nervous system-directed
    - - study causes of behavior
  - - - near-term, immediate, "smaller picture" causes
      - ex: adrenaline released to trigger ritual behaviors
    - - evolved to increase fitness
        
        survival
        
        reproduction
      - ex: rituals for establishing dominance
      - "big picture cause"
  - - - habituation
        
        loss of responsiveness to unimportant stimuli
      - imprinting
        
        permanent learning
        
        takes place during "critical period"
        
        ex: endangered whooping cranes
    - - fixed action patterns (FAPs)
        
        examples
        
        waggle dance in honeybees
        
        stickleback fish attacking other red-bellied fish
        
        baby gulls beg for food when they see red dot (on parent gull's beak)
        
        sequence of unlearned behaviors in response to a simple stimulus
      - programmed responses to stimuli (external or internal)
        
        ex: reflexes (human babies clutch when they're falling)
      - alarm responses
        
        pheromone/chemical
        
        ex: rats going into hiding when one rat releases alarm chemical
    - - genetics
      - environmental influences
      - ex: zebra finch female offspring prefer male partners that look like fathers (with/without fake feather)
  - - - hippocampus
        
        mammals
        
        different place cells in hippocampus fire based on location changes
      - cognitive map
        
        landmarks used to reduce cognitive load
        
        ex: wasps
    - - classical conditioning
        
        Pavlov's dogs
      - operant conditioning
        
        Skinner's rats
    - - exhibited by
        
        cephalopods
        
        vertebrates
      - not mimicking
    - - new behavior based on cognition/problem solving
      - exhibited by
        
        some mammals
        
        some birds
  - - - harm/risk reduction
        
        rituals
        
        signals
        
        increases fitness
      - threats/harm to others
        
        secure food
        
        secure mates
    - - socialization
      - practice
      - exercise
    - - magnetoreception
        
        cryptochromes (CPF) in bird eyes?
        
        caretenoid
        
        light-absorbing pigment
        
        porphyrin
        
        light harvester
        
        fullerene
        
        carbon ball
    - - species-specific mating
      - demonstrate male fitness
        
        extreme features
        
        handicap hypothesis
        
        parasite hypothesis
      - helps females choose mate
      - prevents females from attacking males
    - - kin selection
        
        inclusive fitness
        
        Hamilton's rule
        
        help if b*r > c
        
        b
        
        reproductive benefit to relative
        
        r
        
        relatedness
        
        c
        
        reproductive cost to you
      - reciprocity
- - - - Water-soluble
        
        Bind to cell surface receptors
        
        Undergoes signal transduction (converted from extracellular to intracellular signal)
      - Lipid-soluble
        
        Able to penetrate cell plasma membranes
        
        Binds receptor in cytoplasm, enters nucleus, changes gene expression
      - Types of Signaling
        
        autocrine
        
        acts on itself
        
        paracrine
        
        act on nearby cells
        
        endocrine
        
        act on distant cells through bloodstream/circulatory system transport
      - single hormone can cause different responses in different cells (ex: epinephrine --> fight-or-flight response)
    - - anterior pituitary
        
        mostly tropic hormones
        
        signals to other endocrine glands/tissue to secrete hormones (rather than affecting cells, organs directly)
        
        FSH/LH
        
        TSH
        
        ACTH
        
        hormone cascade pathway
        
        GH (growth hormone)
        
        functions
        
        activates protein synthesis
        
        releases stored energy
        
        effects at different ages
        
        youth: growth w/ normal proportions
        
        adult: acromegaly, only certain tissues keep growing
        
        used for doping/sports performance enhancement
        
        both tropic + nontropic effects
        
        nontropic hormones
        
        prolactin
        
        MSH
      - other glands
        
        pancreas
        
        ovary - testis
        
        thymus
        
        thyroid
      - hypothalamus
        
        hormone control center
        
        receives signals from body (ex: temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, attachment behaviors)
      - posterior pituitary
        
        extension of hypothalamus
        
        ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)
        
        kidney tubules
        
        oxytocin
        
        mammary glands, uterine muscles
      - parathyroid glands
        
        PTH (parathyroid hormone)
        
        calcium regulation
      - adrenal glands
        
        short-term stress response
        
        adrenal medulla
        
        norepinephrine
        
        epinephrine
        
        long-term stress response
        
        adrenal cortex
        
        corticosteroids (glucocorticoids)
        
        suppressed immune system
        
        ex: cortisone
    - - Endocrine disruptor
        
        interfere/exaggerate normal hormonal signals
        
        development abnormalities / fertility issues
        
        examples
        
        DDT
        
        estrogen mimic
        
        pesticide
        
        DES
        
        estrogen mimic
        
        prescribed for smooth pregnancy and birth
        
        BPA
        
        estrogen mimic
        
        plastics
        
        others: dioxin, PCBs
      - Pheromone
        
        chemical messages for other members of species
        
        mating
        
        attract mates
        
        elicit behavior
        
        territory
    - - Sex determination
        
        Anti-Mullerian hormone during development
      - Stress
        
        see adrenal glands above
      - Growth
        
        see GH above
  - - - no syngamy
        
        fusion of cells/nuclei
      - methods
        
        budding
        
        parthenogenesis
      - pro: rapid population growth
    - - hermaphroditism
      - pro:
    - - short day breeder
      - long day breeder
      - humans too
    - - placenta
      - gonads
        
        female
        
        ovaries
        
        follicles
        
        oogenesis / oocyte
        
        1 egg (others discarded - polar bodies)
        
        follicle becomes corpus luteum after egg release
        
        produces hormones
        
        male
        
        testes
        
        seminiferous tubules
        
        spermatogenesis / spermatocyte
        
        4 sperm cells from meiosis
        
        4 more items...
        
        organs that produce gametes
      - spermatheca
        
        stores sterm
    - - hormone cascade pathway
        
        testosterone production, spermatogenesis
        
        affects ovaries, uterus
    - - females
        
        ovarian cycle
        
        FSH
        
        stimulates follicle growth
        
        follicle releases estradiol
        
        causes LH surge
        
        LH
        
        triggers ovulation
        
        higher than FSH
        
        menstrual cycle
        
        progesterone
        
        increases in second half of cycle to promote endometrium thickening
        
        estradiol (estrogen)
        
        increases in second half of cycle to promote endometrium thickening
        
        peaks causing LH surge + ovulation
        
        corpus luteum degenerates without fertilization
        
        estradiol + progesterone inhibit anterior pituitary from secreting more FSH + LH
        
        birth control
        
        estradiol and/or progesterone
        
        inhibits egg release
      - males + females produce same hormones: different amounts/timing
      - fertilization
        
        sperm acrosome
        
        enzymes
        
        structures to bind to receptors on egg surface
        
        polyspermy prevention
        
        fast block
        
        depolarization of egg membrane
        
        within 0.1 sec
        
        only non-mammals
        
        slow block
        
        vitelline layer creates fertilization envelope with cortical granules
        
        egg surrounded by support (follicle) cells
        
        occurs in fallopian tube
  - - - ectopic pregnancy
        
        zygote implants in tube
      - chorionic gonadotropin hormone
        
        released by embryo to prevent corpus luteum from decomposing
      - placenta
        
        chorionic villi
        
        maternal-fetal tissue interface
        
        exchange
        
        nutrients
        
        gas
        
        waste
        
        expelled after chidbirth
      - divided into 3 trimesters
        
        1st
        
        organogenesis
        
        morning sickness
        
        5 cm
        
        2nd
        
        movement
        
        progesterone (placenta)
        
        30 cm
        
        3rd
        
        head-down orientation
        
        maternal organ compression
      - childbirth
        
        positive feedback
        
        estradiol (ovaries) activates oxytocin receptors (uterus)
        
        oxytocin
        
        prostaglandins
        
        more oxytocin
    - - gastrulation
        
        embryonic tissues
        
        ectoderm
        
        skin: epidermis
        
        nervous + sensory systems
        
        mesoderm
        
        skeletal + muscular systems
        
        circulatory + lymphatic systems
        
        skin: dermis
        
        endoderm
        
        epithelial lining of digestive tract + organs
        
        cells migrate
        
        archenteron (digestive tube)
        
        surrounded by
        
        amniote membranes
        
        trophoblast
        
        outer layer of blastula cells --> melds with ectoderm
        
        day 16
      - cleavage
        
        division without mass increase
        
        skips G1, G2 gap phases of regular cell cycle
        
        only DNA synthesis + mitosis
        
        morula
      - blastula
        
        blastocoel
        
        becomes a ball
        
        implantation occurs
        
        adhesion
        
        invasion
        
        days 6-9
      - neurulation
        
        day 28
        
        neural tube
        
        possible defect: spina bifida
        
        lack of folic acid (Vitamin B9)
        
        ectoderm pinches at neural plate
        
        neural crest cells
        
        migrate
        
        branched network of actin filaments contract + expand
        
        lamellipodia
        
        actin "feet" projections
        
        chemotaxis
        
        movement in response to chemical gradient/stimulus
        
        differentiate into other cells
        
        fibroblasts
        
        melanocytes
        
        ganglia neurons
        
        osteocytes
        
        somites
        
        segmental structures
        
        vertebrae
        
        ribs
        
        associated muscles
        
        from mesoderm
        
        morphogenesis
        
        cytoskeleton changes
        
        microtubules
        
        actin filaments
        
        convergent extension
        
        forms single sheet of cells from two layers
        
        programmed cell death
        
        apoptosis
  - - - processes information in 3 stages
        
        sensory input
        
        sensor
        
        integration
        
        interneurons
        
        motor output
        
        effector
      - ex: knee-jerk reflex
      - all Eumetazoa have nervous system to control muscle contractions
    - - Cellular
        
        signal transmission
        
        graded potential
        
        change in membrane potential without reaching threshold
        
        action potential
        
        stages when triggered
        
        depolarization reaches threshold
        
        all-or-nothing
        
        -55 mV
        
        more depolarization
        
        voltage-gated sodium channels open
        
        peak action potential
        
        voltage-gated potassium channels open
        
        voltage-gated sodium channels close
        
        hyperpolarization
        
        deactivates voltage-gated sodium channels
        
        refractory period
        
        repolarization
        
        active transport restores resting potential
        
        originates from axon hillock
        
        in response to depolarization in dendrites
        
        propagates along axon
        
        unidirectional bc of refractory period
        
        insulated by myelin sheaths
        
        secreted by Schwann cells
        
        saltatory conduction
        
        1 more item...
        
        multiple sclerosis (MS)
        
        2 more items...
        
        neurons
        
        transmit signals
        
        diff. shapes/sizes
        
        can interact w/ multiple sensor/effector cells
        
        resting potential
        
        -70 mV
        
        bundled together as nerves
        
        electrical/membrane potential
        
        ionic gradients (differences) on either side of neuron cell membrane
        
        active transport
        
        sodium-potassium pump
        
        2 K+ in
        
        3 Na+ out
        
        diffusion through channels
        
        potassium channels always open, flowing out
        
        depolarization
        
        more positive membrane potential
        
        hyperpolarization
        
        more negative membrane potential
        
        K+ (more than Na+) determines resting potential
        
        synapse
        
        electrical
        
        postsynaptic potentials (PSPs)
        
        EPSPs
        
        excitatory = depolarizing
        
        single EPSP usually too small to reach threshold
        
        multiple EPSPs in succession
        
        1 more item...
        
        IPSPs
        
        inhibitory = hyperpolarizing
        
        summed in axon hillock
        
        gap junction
        
        space between neurons
        
        chemical
        
        into synaptic cleft
        
        Ca+ triggers synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter
        
        action potential reaches axon terminal
        
        voltage-gated Ca+ channels open (Ca+ flows in)
        
        binds w/ receptors on post-synaptic cell
        
        ionotropic: directly with ligand-gated ion channels
        
        channels open
        
        metabotropic receptors
        
        signal transduction pathway
        
        secondary messengers
        
        creates graded potential
        
        neurotransmitter: major groups
        
        acetylcholine
        
        amino acids
        
        glutamate
        
        3 more items...
        
        neuropeptides
        
        substance P
        
        3 more items...
        
        biogenic amines
        
        norepinephrine
        
        dopamine
        
        1 more item...
        
        gases
        
        glia
        
        helper cells
        
        outnumber neurons 10:1
      - vertebrate
        
        central nervous system (CNS)
        
        components
        
        spinal cord
        
        relay point for afferent/efferent signals
        
        brain
        
        parts
        
        cerebrum
        
        cerebellum
        
        thalamus
        
        pineal gland
        
        hypothalamus
        
        pituitary gland
        
        brainstem
        
        medulla oblongota
        
        pons
        
        what exactly did Prof. cover for this lecture?
        
        scanning technologies
        
        electroencephalography (EEG)
        
        3 more items...
        
        positron emission topography (PET)
        
        1 more item...
        
        functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
        
        1 more item...
        
        diffusion spectrum imaging
        
        1 more item...
        
        plasticity / long-term potentiation
        
        development
        
        healing (from injury)
        
        training/learning
        
        cerebrospinal fluid
        
        supplies nutrients, hormones
        
        carries away waste
        
        provides buffer/buoyancy
        
        protection
        
        "matter"
        
        white matter
        
        outside of spinal cord
        
        inside of brain
        
        myelinated axons
        
        gray matter
        
        inside of spinal cord
        
        unmyelinated cells
        
        outside of brain
        
        peripheral nervous system (PNS)
        
        components
        
        spinal nerves
        
        ganglia outside spinal cord
        
        motor system
        
        skeletal muscles
        
        autonomic system
        
        sympathetic
        
        fight or flight
        
        parasympathetic
        
        rest and digest
        
        organs, other involuntary changes
        
        how it works
        
        afferent signals
        
        toward CNS
        
        efferent signals
        
        away from CNS
  - - - input: sensor = sensory neurons
        
        afferent signals
        
        integration: interneurons
        
        efferent signal
        
        output: effector = motor neurons
      - steps
        
        transduction/integration
        
        amplification/adaptation
        
        transmission
        
        perception
        
        input
      - strength conveyed w/ frequency + # action potentials
    - - mechanoreceptors
        
        hearing
        
        sound vibrates tympanic membrane
        
        middle ear bones vibrate
        
        transferred to fluid-filled cochlea
        
        organ of Corti = floor of cochlear duct
        
        basilar membrane vibrates tectorial membrane
        
        basilar membrane: stiff + narrow at oval window, wide + flexible at apex
        
        perception
        
        volume
        
        more action potential frequency
        
        pitch
        
        different region of basilar membrane vibrates
        
        balance
        
        semicircular canals in ears
        
        lined with hairs
        
        3 pointed in different directions
        
        filled with fluid
        
        detect directional + rotational movement
        
        touch/physical sensations
        
        motion
        
        pressure
        
        streth
      - chemoreceptors
        
        senses
        
        smell
        
        pheromones
        
        taste
        
        umami
        
        sweet
        
        salty
        
        sour
        
        bitter
        
        objects
        
        pheromones
        
        solutes
      - photoreceptors (electromagnetic receptors)
        
        vertebrate eye parts
        
        pupil
        
        size modulated by iris
        
        color influenced by melanin
        
        melanin: also in skin, converts UV light to heat
        
        sclera
        
        white part: protective layer around eyeball
        
        lens
        
        single lens in vertebrates
        
        focuses light onto retina
        
        vitreous humor
        
        retina
        
        receptors
        
        types
        
        cones
        
        photopsins
        
        red
        
        green
        
        blue
        
        rods
        
        rhodopsin
        
        located in disc membranes
        
        light exposure
        
        closes Na+ channels
        
        hyperpolorization
        
        1 more item...
        
        retinal
        
        light-absorbing molecule (on/off switch)
        
        embedded in opsins
        
        light exposure
        
        converts from cis (angled) to trans (straight)
        
        activates opsin protein
        
        invertebrates
        
        compound eyes
        
        detect movement over wide angle
    - - hierarchy of units
        
        myofibrils
        
        bundle of filaments
        
        sarcomeres
        
        basic contractile unit
        
        borders line up across myofibrils
        
        striated tissue
        
        M lines
        
        myosin ends = sarcomere middles
        
        Z lines
        
        actin ends = sarcomere ends
        
        filaments
        
        actin
        
        thin
        
        myosin
        
        thick
      - sliding filament model
        
        relaxation
        
        myosin heads bound to ATP
        
        low energy configuration
        
        contraction
        
        myosin head binds to actin - forms cross-bridge
        
        releases ADP + Pi during power stroke/pull
        
        myosin head hydrolyzes ATP to ADP + Pi (inorganic phosphate)
        
        myosin pulls actin to center of sarcomere
        
        process repeats
        
        returns to low-energy state
      - acetylcholine
        
        binds to skeletal muscle cell receptors
        
        released by motor neurons
        
        EPSP: ion channels open
        
        hydrolyzed by enzyme acetylcholinesterase
- - - - wetlands
        
        estuaries
        
        where river meets ocean
        
        high productivity
        
        nursery grounds
        
        supports many birds + fish
        
        tropical: mangrove forests
        
        dampen tsunami energy
        
        deforestation across SE Asia
        
        shallow water bodies
        
        can be seasonally dry
        
        ex: marsh, swamp, bog
        
        can be freshwater or saltwater
        
        large photic zone
        
        high primary production
        
        change in attitudes
        
        destroyed pre-1960
        
        change/reduce natural flooding cycles
        
        land development
        
        agriculture
        
        conserved + restored today
        
        ecosystem services
        
        clean sewage + stormwater
        
        reduce flooding
        
        wildlife value
      - marine
        
        intertidal
        
        tide pools
        
        sea stars = keystone predator
        
        neritic
        
        coral reefs
        
        biodiversity hotspots
        
        25% ocean species
        
        anthozoans
        
        calcium carbonate skeletons
        
        zooxanthelle
        
        symbiotic algae
        
        oligotrophic
        
        above continental shelf
        
        most seafood consumed
        
        upwelling
        
        nutrient-rich water from depths pushed up
        
        ENSO
        
        El Nino
        
        weak trade winds
        
        less upwelling
        
        1 more item...
        
        La Nina
        
        more rain (+ wind?)
        
        more upwelling
        
        1 more item...
        
        3-10 year cycle
        
        pelagic
        
        limited nutrients
        
        lower productivity
        
        dinoflagellates
        
        with toxins
        
        biomagnification
        
        ciguatera
        
        also mercury
        
        nekton
        
        cephalopoda
        
        chondrichthyes
        
        osteichthyes
        
        mammalia
        
        blue whale
        
        critically endangered
        
        abyssal
        
        characteristics
        
        high pressure
        
        dark
        
        2000-6000 m
        
        animals
        
        angler fish
        
        other bioluminescent creatures
        
        giant tube worms
        
        crabs
        
        anemones
        
        hydrothermal vents
        
        carbon assimilation/primary production
        
        H2S substitutes for H2O and sunlight
        
        chemosynthesis
      - freshwater
        
        streams and rivers
        
        river continuum concept: unidirectional flow
        
        mountains, shady wet forest
        
        headwaters
        
        shredders
        
        lowlands, slowing water flow
        
        lower reaches
        
        collectors
        
        increasing sun
        
        midreaches
        
        grazers
        
        stream genesis
        
        ocean or lake
        
        definition: consistent gradients/processes create continuous, predictable changes in organisms + conditions
        
        riparian biomes
        
        riverbank
        
        abundant detritivores
        
        lakes and ponds
        
        stratified = distinct zones
        
        light availability
        
        photic zone
        
        aphotic/profundal zone
        
        distance to shore
        
        littoral zone
        
        limnetic zone
        
        nutrient profile
        
        oligotrophic
        
        no nutrients
        
        eutrophic
        
        lots of nutrients
        
        nutrient cycle
        
        phosphorus
        
        naturally found in rocks
        
        human activity
        
        mining
        
        fertilizer
        
        sewage
        
        livestock runoff
        
        guano
        
        nitrogen
        
        naturally found in atmosphere
        
        human activity
        
        industrial fixation
        
        fertilizers
        
        sewage
        
        livestock runoff
        
        cycle
        
        nitrogen-fixing bacteria (prokaryotes)
        
        nitrite, nitrate, ammonia
    - - savanna
        
        tropical
      - desert
      - temperate deciduous forests
        
        characterized by
        
        broad-leafed deciduous trees
        
        more rain, less frequent disturbance
        
        ecological succession
        
        majority today are secondary forests
        
        regrowth following human activity
        
        other disturbance
        
        logging
        
        primary forest
        
        many old trees, very few shrubs
        
        after 100 years
        
        causes
        
        dispersal
        
        seeds/propagules spread by wind, water, animals
        
        facilitation
        
        early arrivals promote establishment of other species
        
        competition
        
        for limiting resources
        
        promotes dominance by different species
        
        competitive exclusion principle
        
        Eastern gray squirrels dominating over English red squirrel
        
        disturbance
        
        resets process
      - temperate grassland
      - taiga/boreal (coniferous forests)
        
        most extensive biome in northern latitudes
        
        characterized by
        
        long winters + short summers
        
        conifers
        
        animals
        
        predator-prey population cycles
        
        lynx + hares
        
        caribou/reindeer + wolves
      - tundra
        
        characterized by
        
        strong winds
        
        low biodiversity
        
        very short growing season (6-10 weeks)
        
        permafrost
        
        thick subsurface soil layer that stays frozen all year
        
        life
        
        lichen = food for reindeers
        
        plant adaptations
        
        heat conservation
        
        dark leaves
        
        cushion morphology
      - tropical forests
        
        relatively constant warm temperatures
        
        types
        
        rain forest
        
        climate
        
        short dry season (if any)
        
        a lot of rain
        
        high biomass + biodiversity
        
        plants
        
        adapted to shade (light limitation at lower levels)
        
        animals
        
        primates
        
        many undescribed species
        
        cleared
        
        agricultural use
        
        laterized/lateritic soils
        
        1 more item...
        
        lost ecosystem services
        
        cloud forest
        
        high elevation
        
        enveloped in clouds
        
        waterlogging
        
        stunted vegetation
        
        source of freshwater
        
        cloud stripping
        
        fog drip
        
        dry forest
        
        summer drought
        
        most endangered forest type
        
        plumeria trees (Mexico)
  - - - scientific study of relationships between organisms + between organisms/environment
    - - a particular environment w/ specific climate, with common plants + animals
    - - an ecological community of plants + animals in a particular environment
    - - study nutrient/energy cycling through ecosystems
    - - rate that plants add biomass (energy) to ecosystem
    - - converting CO2 + H2O + light to produce carbohydrates
    - - ex: clean air/water, crop pollination, extreme weather mitigation, waste decomposition, etc.
    - - measure of variety of organisms living in an area
      - diversity-stability hypothesis
        
        biodiversity promotes ecosystem stability
    - - predictable change in ecosystem composition over time
    - - an organism's role in an ecosystem
    - - similar to predator-prey cycles
      - R = reproduction number / infectivity rate
    - - exponentional growth
        
        no limit
        
        Nt = N0e^rt
      - logistic growth
        
        carrying capacity = limit
    - - legal protection to species
        
        mostly fish
  - - - solar radiation
        
        varies with latitude
        
        affected by earth's curvature + axis of rotation
      - adiabatic cooling
        
        temperature drops with decrease in pressure
        
        occurs while air rises
        
        part of convection cell
        
        cloud formation
        
        occurs at 0deg, 60degN, 60degS
    - - convection cells
        
        driven by solar radiation
        
        determines broad rainfall patterns
        
        rain occurs when warm moist air rises + cools
      - orographic
        
        occurs in Hawaii
        
        when moist air is forced upwards
    - - drive organism adaptations
      - caused by tilt in earth's axis
    - - carbon cycle
        
        increasing atmospheric CO2
        
        ocean acidification
        
        fossil fuel burning
      - greenhouse effect
      - sea level rise
        
        glacial melting
        
        thermal expansion
      - mitigation
        
        reduce carbon footprint
        
        amount of emissions per person/entity
        
        carbon offsets
        
        extra fee with plane ticket
        
        carbon neutrality
        
        led by tech companies
    - - influenced by vegetation