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Circulatory System, RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, IMMUNE SYSTEM, acquired(specific) …

- - - - Transport:
        
        Supply of oxygen, nutrients, hormones to tissues and removes wastes such as carbon
        dioxide, urea, and lactic acid from tissues.
      - Defence:
        
        Defence against microbes by means of antibody production.
      - Regulation:
        
        Osmotic balance, pH buffering, and maintaining ion concentration of interstitial fluid.
      - Protection:
        
        Coagulation, the response to a broken blood vessel to stop bleeding.
    - - A liquid, called plasma,
        
        which comprises about 55% of total blood volume.
      - The cell-based portion,
        
        which is about 40–45% of total blood volume and consists of:
        
        Red blood cells(Erythrocytes)
        
        Developing erythrocytes have the usual cell organelles, but mature cells lose them, including
        
        nuclei, mitochondria, and ribosomes.
        
        properties
        
        These cells generate their ATP exclusively
        
        anaerobic metabolism.
        
        Their cytoplasm is filled with
        
        an iron-containing protein known as hemoglobin that ransport oxygen.Oxygenated hemoglobin takes on a bright cherry-red color. Hemoglobin
        becomes bluish as it releases O2 and picks up CO2 at tissues.Each red blood cell contains about 250 million molecules of hemoglobin.
        
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        they do not leave blood vessels.
        
        Their rate of production (~ 2 million/ sec) is controlled by a kidney hormone known as
        
        erythropoietin, which is released into the blood when cells in the kidney detect a drop in
        blood oxygen level.
        
        White blood cells
        
        properties
        
        They are colorless cells and protect the body from
        disease-causing organisms, such as bacteria and viruses.
        
        Mature white blood cells have a nucleus and
        larger than RBCs.
        
        They function inside and outside the circulatory system.
        
        There are five major types of
        
        Neutrophils (60-70 %),
        
        They are known as phagocytes.
        
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        Basophils,
        
        Eosinophil,
        
        form mast cells in loose connective tissues. These cells
        secrete
        
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        release
        
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        Monocytes
        (5-6%),
        
        differentiated in lymphatic tissues and converted into
        
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        Lymphocytes.
        
        produce antibodies.
        
        are grouped into two:
        
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        Cancer of the cells that produce
        WBC is called
        
        leukemia.
        
        Platelets (thrombocytes)
        
        properties
        
        not really cells at all, but fragments of cells.
        
        They have no nuclei and originate as
        pinched-off cytoplasmic fragments of large cells in the bone marrow.
        
        platelets cell
        
        release chemicals that initiate a series of reactions, producing
        the enzyme thrombin from its inactive form, prothrombin.
        
        Thrombin catalyzes the conversion of the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen into insoluble
        strands of a protein called
        
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    - - complex process that plugs damaged blood vessels and protects animals from
        excessive blood loss.
    - - consist of 4 blood groups
        
        Type B
        
        if B type blood is injected into their systems, anti-B
        antibodies in their plasma will recognize itas alien and burst or agglutinate the introduced red cells in
        order to cleanse the blood of alien protein.
        
        Type AB
        
        Those who
        have type AB blood do not make any ABO antibodies.Their blood does not discriminate against any
        other ABO type.
        
        Type A
        
        type A blood will have the A antigen on the surface of their red blood cells
        (erytrocytes).
        
        Type 0
        
        type O people are
        universal donors for transfusions, but they can receive only type O blood themselves.
      - Some people have an additional marker, called
        
        Rh factor,
        
        as either "positive" (meaning it has Rh factor) or "negative" (without Rh factor).
    - - transfusion is a simple medical procedure that doctors use to make up for a loss of blood.
        
        Agglutination blocks capillaries, damages cell structure or release of
        
        hemoglobin into plasma from
        RBCs by phagocytic activity of WBC.Hemoglobin is also broken down into billuribin by phagocytic
        activity of WBC.Increasing amount of billuribin causes
        
        jaudince.
        
        Most deaths caused by
        
        wrong blood
        transfusions are due to kidney failure.
        
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  - - - arteries
        
        carry blood away from
        
        the heart
        
        arterioles,
        
        which play a major role in
        determining how blood is distributed in the body.
        
        The walls of arteries
        
        thicker and more elastic than those of veins, enabling the arteries to
        withstand the high pressure of blood caused by ventricular contractions.
        
        thickness of their walls
        
        With each heart beat
        
        the arteries expand slightly, like thick-walled balloons
        
        The diameter of arteries
        
        steadily decrease as their distance from
        the heart increases.
        
        conduct blood into elaborate network of
        
        tiny capillaries, microscopically thin
        vessels
        
        allow
        
        exchange of dissolved nutrients, wastes, oxygen and
        other substances between the
        
        the blood and the body cells through tissues fluid (intercellular
        fluid).
      - capillaries
        
        The wall of the capillaries consists of
        
        a single layer of endothelium.
        
        Cell of endothellium
        
        Endothelilal
        
        Gases, water, and lipid-soluble hormones and fatty acids diffuse through the endothelial cell
        membranes.
        
        Some proteins may be ferried across the endothelial cell membrane as vesicles.
        
        cappilaries are so narrow that red blood cells pass through them single file
        
        propertiy
        
        They are so numerous that increase surface area for gas and fluid exchange with the
        interstitial fluid.
        
        Velocity of blood flow is
        slowest in the capillary beds,
        
        as a result of
        
        the high resistance and large total cross-sectional area
        Blood flow in capillaries is necessarily slow for exchange of materials.
        
        the sites of exchange between the blood and the cells of the body. Substances
        take various routes across the thin capillary walls.
        
        Although capillaries lose only about 1% of the volume of fluid they carry, so much blood passes
        through the capillaries that the cumulative loss of fluid adds up to about 3 liters per day.
        
        The lost fluid and proteins return to the blood via the
        
        lymphatic system.
        
        Fluid enters the system
        by diffusing into tiny
        
        includes
        
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        edema
        
        occurs
        
        Causes;
        
        Sitting or staying in one position for too long
        
        Eating too much salty food
        
        Premenstrual signs and symptoms
      - veins
        
        The walls of arteries and veins
        consist of three layers;
        
        an innermost layer of
        squamous endothelium
        
        The epithelial layer that lines blood
        vessels is called
        
        endothelium
        
        and outer layer of fibrous
        connective tissue
        
        a middle layer of smooth
        muscle and elastic fibers
        
        After picking up carbon dioxide and other wastes from cells, capillary blood drains into larger
        vessels, called
        
        carry blood towards the heart.
        
        The walls of the veins
        
        have fewer elastic and muscular fibers than those of the arteries, but
        their thickness increases as they approach the heart.
        
        Blood is under low pressure in the veins, and backflow of the blood is prevented by
        
        the
        semi-lunar valves.
        
        When veins are compressed,
        
        one-way valves keep blood flowing toward the heart.
        
        properties of veins
        
        Blood flow is slow
        
        Blood pressure is low and non-
        pulsatile
        
        Transport blood towards the
        heart
    - - is the force blood exerts on vessel walls
      - decreases as
        
        as blood moves away from the heart
      - properties
        
        depends on
        
        cardiac output and resistance of vessels to expansion,
        
        reading of less than 120/80 is considered
        
        healthy
      - measured as
        
        systolic pressures
        
        caused by
        
        ventricular contraction,
        
        diastolic pressure
      - The highest pressure occurs during
        
        ventricular systole (contraction of ventricles),
        
        when the blood is
        pumped from the ventricles into arteries with great force.The pressure is called
        
        the systolic
        pressure.
        
        Blood pressure is commonly
        stated in the form of
      - During diastole (relaxation),
        
        blood pressure remains relatively high because
        
        the elasticity of the
        artery walls helps to maintain the pressure between heartbeats.
        
        propety
        
        There is some drop in
        pressure.This pressure is called
        
        diastolic pressure.
        
        The normal blood pressure in a
        resting adult is 120/ 80 mm-Hg.
        
        passive diffusion of substances out of the blood, fluid is pushed through the
        endothelium by blood pressure (hydrostatic pressure) within the capillary.
      - During exercise and time of stress,
        
        blood pressure increases.
      - The difference
        between blood pressure and osmotic pressure
        
        drives fluids out of capillaries at the arteriole end and
        into capillaries at the venule end.
  - - - The heart is a cone-shaped organ about the size of a fist,
    - - consist of
        
        cardiac muscle.
    - - into four chambers.
        
        The two upper thin walled chambers are
        
        The atria
        
        The left and right sides of the
        heart are separated by a partition
        
        called the septum.
        
        The two lower, thick-walled chambers are
        
        the ventricles.
        
        consist of
        
        In the right side of the heart, the AV valve is called
        
        the tricuspid valve,
        
        because
        
        it has 3-
        flaps.
        
        The right side of the heart sends
        
        deoxygenated blood to the
        lungs,
        
        Deoxygenated blood is collected by
        
        coronary veins,
        
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        In the left side, it is called
        
        the bicuspid, or mitral valve.
        
        the left side sends
        
        oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.
        
        The other two valves, called the
        
        semilunar valves,
        
        allow blood to move from the ventricles into
        
        the pulmonary artery and the aorta.
        
        They prevent backflow from these arteries into the
        ventricles.
    - - Pericardium:
        
        outermost tough connective tissue sac.
        
        made up
        
        two layer
        
        the
        innermost membrane is called
        
        epicardium
        
        properties
        
        Fluid secreted by the pericardium reduces friction
        between the beating heart and the surrounding tissues.
        
        The pericardium is also attached to the
        diaphragm and firmly anchors the heart in position.
      - Endocardium:
        
        Innermost, smooth and single layer.
        
        It does not have
        
        blood vessels.
        
        It is the part
        that contacts with blood.
        
        properties
      - Myocardium:
        
        Middle layer of the heart
        
        made up of
        
        cardiac muscle
        
        it thicker than other
        layers.
    - - four flap like valves, called the atrioventricular
        
        valves; allow blood to flow from atria into ventricles.
    - - cardiac cycle.
        
        cycle consists of
        
        During diastole (relaxation phase), blood flows
        
        o from veins
        o into heart chambers.
        
        During systole (contraction phase), blood flows
        
        from atria
        o into ventricles.
        
        Lasts less than 1 second (0.85 seconds). The time taken for one cardiac cycle of
        contraction and relaxation is 0.8 seconds when the heart is beating at a rate of 75 beats per minute.
        
        During the first 0.15 second of the cardiac cycle,
        
        The atria contract and force blood into the
        ventricles.The ventricles contract for about 0.30 second and push the blood out of the heart,
        completing systole.
        
        During diastole,
        
        the heart relaxes and blood flows into the atria and ventricles (0.40 seconds).Blood also flows into the atria during the second part of systole.The blood and heart movements
        during the cardiac cycle generate vibrations that produce a
        
        "Lub-dup" sound.
        
        Impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle can be recorded as an
        
        electrocardiogram (ECG or
        EKG).
    - - Both atria contract and pump blood into the ventricles
      - All chambers relax briefly before the cycle repeats
      - Both ventricles contract and pump blood into the arteries that exit the heart
    - - Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable, meaning they contract without any signal from the
        nervous system.
      - The contraction of the heart is initiated and coordinated by
        
        a pacemaker, a
        cluster of specialized heart muscle cells
        
        that produce spontaneous electrical signals (action
        potentials) at a regular rate.
        
        Electrical signals from the SA node pass freely into the connecting cardiac muscle cells and then
        throughout the atria.The electrical signal then passes from the right atrium to a specialized group of
        muscle cells between the right atrium and right ventricle called
        
        atrioventricular (AV) node.
        
        Impulses from the AV node pass through a strand of specialized muscle in the interventricular
        septum known as the
        
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        The heart’s pacemaker is the sinoatrial (SA) node,
        
        located in
        
        upper wall of the right atrium.
        
        If the pacemaker fails,
        
        it may be
        necessary to install an
        
        an artificial
        pacemaker,an electronic device
        about the size of a pocket watch.Such surgery is now fairly routine.
    - - Contraction of the SA node sets up the rhythmic contractions for the entire heart,but the SA node
        itself is controlled by a variety of stimuli;
      - a) Nervous Control of Heart Rate
        
        Sensory receptors in the walls of certain vessels and heart chambers are sensitive to changes in
        blood pressure.
        
        When stimulated
        
        they send messages to cardio-vascular centers in the medulla
        oblongata of the brain
        
        These cardiac centers maintain control over
        
        two sets of autonomic nerves
        that pass to the SA node.
        
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      - b) Non-nervous Control of Heart Beating Rate
        
        There are a number of non-nervous stimuli that act directly on cardiac muscle or on the SA node.
        
        High pH, Low temperature
        
        Low pH (e.g. high CO2 levels), High temperature
        (due to exercises or illnesses), Stimulants like caffeine or nicotine
        
        Non-nervous Stimulation Effect on Heart
- - - - This blood enters the right atrium and
        flow into the right ventricle.
        
        The right ventricle
        pumps it through
        
        the pulmonary arteries to
        the lungs.
        
        The pulmonary arteries
        
        property
        
        The pulmonary veins are the only veins that carry oxygenated
        blood. All other veins carry deoxygenated blood.
        
        The pulmonary arteries are the only
        arteries that carry deoxygenated blood..All
        other arteries carry oxygenated blood.
  - - - in the left
        ventricle of the heart.
    - - the
        left ventricle.
        
        From the left ventricle,
        
        the blood is pumped
        out into the aorta.
        
        The aorta branches and forms the arteries that serve all parts of the
        body.
        
        The arteries
        divide and subdivide,
        forming
        
        arterioles
        
        finally forming the
        
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    - - The Coronary (Cardiac) Circulation:
        
        It supplies blood to the heart muscle, and includes
        the coronary arteries and veins.
        
        properties
      - The Hepatic Portal Circulation:
        
        It transports blood from the digestive tract to the liver.
        
        properties
      - The Renal Circulation:
        
        Renal arteries and veins bring blood to and from the kidneys
        where wastes, excess water, and other substances are removed from the blood.
        
        properties
- - - - Blood pressure is the measurement of how much force is used to pump blood through your arteries
      - There are no symptoms with high blood pressure, which is why it’s often called “the silent kille
      - High blood pressure can damage your heart and lead to heart disease, stroke, or kidney disease.
      - symptoms
      - affect
      - meaning of
    - - indicates that the plaque buildup in your arteries has caused the arteries to narrow and harden. Blood clots can further block the arteries.
      - Coronary artery disease develops over time.
      - it may cause chest pain or the sensation of heaviness in the chest.
      - symptoms
    - - occurs
        
        when not enough blood reaches your hear
      - symptoms such as
        
        shortness of breath
        
        sweating
        
        irregular heartbeat
      - damage
        
        the heart muscle and are medical emergencies
- - - - pleura
        
        The pleural fluid acts as a
        lubricant between the two membranes and prevent ribs damaging the lungs.
  - - - with the trachea below. It consists of two elastic
        tissue called vocal cords, stretched across airway.
- - - - for example
        
        adrenaline
        increases the breathing rate.Thyroxine which is secreted by thyroid glands affect the breathing rate
        also.
- - - - occurs when;
        
        lifting ribs up and outward,
        
        pressure around the lungs decreases,
        
        diaphragm moves downward,
        
        This type of ventilation is called
        
        negative pressure breathing.
  - - - occurs when
        
        muscles of diaphragm are relaxed,
        
        ribs fall down inward,
        
        Air is inhaled actively and exhaled passively.
- - - - not very soluble in water, very little is transported in blood in the form of dissolved
        oxygen. In most animals oxygen is carried by respiratory pigments in blood.
      - 2% of O2 is carried in plasma
      - 98% of O2 is carried in the form of oxyhemoglobin
  - - - CO2 first diffuses into interstitial fluid from body cells;
      - then diffuses into nearby capillaries,
      - then it is carried in the bloodstream to the respiratory membranes of the alveoli.
    - - Dissolved in plasma as CO2 (7%)
      - In the form of carboxyhemoglobin (23%)
        
        Hb + CO2 → HbCO2 (Tissue capillaries)
        (carboxyhemoglobin)
        
        HbCO2 → Hb + CO2 (Lung capillaries)
      - As bicarbonate ions (70%)
        
        Hb + H+ → HHb (tissue capillaries)
        
        The reaction producing bicarbonate ions is reversed as the blood flows through capillaries
        surrounding the alveoli, where CO2 is low.The CO2 then diffuses into the air in the alveoli,
        which is exhaled from the lungs while the H2O remains in the blood.
- - - - emphysema.
        
        the alveoli in the lungs are damaged. This interferes with oxygen absorption, making the patient feel short of breat
      - chronic bronchitis
        
        inflamed airways constrict and generate excess mucus, making it hard to breathe
  - - - the inhalation of particles from the air. Physical activity or respiratory infections may also contribute
    - - Asthma sufferers wheeze, cough, and have difficulty breathing during an attack
  - - - Runny nose
- - - - with lungs: breathing,
    - - Carbon dioxide and oxygen move into and out of the body by
        
        diffusion
      - the process that moves
        material from
        
        regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration.
      - should have the following characteristics to perform adequate gas
        exchange:
        
        Respiratory surfaces remain moist so that gases can diffuse across cell membranes
        
        The cells lining respiratory surfaces are very thin, to facilitate diffusion of gases through them
        
        Respiratory systems have a sufficiently large surface area in contact with the environment
        to allow adequate gas exchange
    - - in the alveoli.
        
        Alveoli cluster
        around the end of each bronchiole like a bunch of grapes, providing a huge surface area for diffusion.
        
        O2 diffuses into the blood
        
        CO2 diffuses out of the blood.
        
        coated with
        
        thin layer of watery fluid containing surfactant, which prevents the alveolar surfaces from sticking
        together and collapsing when air is exhaled.
- - - - a continous supply of oxygen and the disposal of carbon dioxide.
    - - which converts the energy in nutrients into the ATP used by cells,
        requires a steady supply of oxygen and generates carbon dioxide as a waste product.
- - - - the nerves controlling muscles in the legs and sometimes the arms and upper body. Weakness results, which can sometimes be severe.
    - - plasmapheresis is the main treatment for Guillain-Barre syndrome.
  - - - body tissues, including the lungs, kidneys, and skin.Many types of auto-antibodies are found in the blood of people with lupus
  - - - Infections require rapid and aggressive treatment with antibiotics.
    - - need long-term antibiotics to prevent respiratory infections and permanent damage to the lungs and ears.
    - - Medications such as ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB, others) for pain and fever, decongestants for sinus congestion
- - - - cover the
        
        external surfaces of the body and line the body cavities that come in contact with the external
        environment such as the surfaces of the respiratory, digestive, and urogenital tracts.
    - - First-line Defenses (Anatomic barriers):
        
        physical and chemical barriers.
        
        includes
        
        skin,
        
        urine
        
        stomach acid
        
        mucus
        
        contain
        
        antibacterial proteins,
        including lysozyme, which kills bacteria by digesting their cell walls,and defensin, which makes
        holes in bacterial plasma membranes
        
        sweat
        
        tears
        
        salva
        
        -contain chemicals that kill some bacteria.
      - Second-line Defences (Inflammatory Response Defense):
        
        activated when
        
        If a pathogen is able to pass the first-line defense and starts an infection,
        
        Phagocytes:
        
        white blood cells, which ingest foreign invaders and cellular debris by
        
        phagocytosis
        
        Three important types of phagocytes
        
        neutrophils,
        
        dendritic cells.
        
        macrophages,
        
        These cells travel within the bloodstream, pass through capillary walls, and patrol the body’s tissues,
        where they consume bacteria and other foreign elements.
        
        Natural killer cells:
        
        They attack body’s own cells that have become cancerous or have been
        invaded by viruses.
        
        properties
        
        Interferons:
        
        When the pathogen is a virus, the infected cells produce a protein, called interferon,
        which causes nearby uninfectedcells to produce enzymes that block the reproduction of viruses and
        activate macrophages.
        
        properties
        
        Inflammatory response:
        
        A reaction of the body that causes swelling, redness, warmth, and pain in
        the area of an infection.Tissue damage triggers the inflammatory response, which can disinfect and
        clean infected tissues and limit the spread of infection to surrounding tissues.
        
        properties
        
        Fever:
        
        It is a systemic inflammatory response triggered by pyrogens released by macrophages, and
        toxins from pathogens.
        
        properties
- - - - or B cells continue developing in bone marrow.
      - Some activated B-cells remain as
        
        Memory cells
        
        cells of humoral immunity
        
        b) Humoral (antibody-mediated ) immunity:
        
        provided by
        
        If the same antigen enters the body again, the
        memory cells will make the antibody to destroy it.
      - the antibodies that they secrete into the blood that
        attack pathogens outside the body’s cells.B cells produce specific antibodies to destroy pathogens.
        Antibody is a protein produced by B cells.
        
        grows and reproduces by mitosis to form a group (a clone) of cells. Most of these
        cells increase in size and differentiate into
        
        plasma cells
        
        which then produce and secrete antibodies,
        that are transported via lymph and blood to infected area.
    - - or T cells develop further in the thymus.
- - - - a type of T cell called the cytotoxic T cell
        
        that attacks
        infected body cells, killing both the cell and any pathogens inside itThey promote phagocytosis by
        other white blood cells and by stimulating B cells to produce antibodies..
- - - - properties
        
        faster and stronger than the primary immune response.
        
        is slower than the secondary immune response.
    - - properties
        
        occurs upon first exposure to an antigen
        
        slower than the secondary immune response.
- - - - vaccination.
        
        A vaccine may contain
        weakend dead pathogens or the toxins ofpathogen elicits an immune response to an
        immunological memory