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Theories of Child Development, ZPD is the basis of the concept, Lazarte,…

- - - - Research on pre-operational thought revealed that cultural practices influence the development of operational thinking significantly.
      - Children's specific experiences and their motivations can also affect operational thought.
      - Donnaldson (1978) ⇒ the language of the experiments was unnatural and difficult to understand
        
        Questions sound strange, unnatural, and they are never heard in normal every day conversations.
      - The context of the experiments was also problematic
        
        Tasks are different from real-life experiences and events
      - The supposed abrupt change around the age of 7 seems more likely to be a gradual, continuous change.
      - Wood (1998) and Donaldson (1978) emphasise adults do not always think according to the rules of formal logic
      - There is plenty of evidence suggesting that development is nowhere near complete by the age of 12.
        
        Wood argues that many crucial improvements take place beyond 12 years of age.
  - - - Intelligence ⇒ a basic function that helps organisms to adapt to their environment.
        
        Interaction with the environment
        
        Organization ⇒ Children create mental structures which are also combined to make ever more complex schemes
        
        Adaptation ⇒ Children compare and adjust their schemes to match what they face in the environment
        
        It consists of two sub-processes
        
        assimilation ⇒ the child interprets new knowledge following the models or schemes they possess
        
        accommodation ⇒ The child modifies the existing structures to incorporate the new knowledge
        
        Stage 1 ⇒ 0-2 years: sensori-motor stage
        
        Stage 2 ⇒ 2- 7 years: pre-oerational stage
        
        Stage 3 ⇒ 7- 11 years: concrete operational stage
        
        Stage 4 ⇒ 11-12 and beyond: formal operational stage
        
        It's characterized by hypothetico-deductive reasoning
        
        Adolescents can take a hypothetical problem and carefully consider all possible factors that might affect the outcome.
        
        Adolescents ⇒ systematic approach ⇒ they weight up different alternatives and can imagine creative alternatives as opposed to what is given.
        
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        In this stage starts the most fundamental cognitive change ⇒ the development of 'concrete operations'
        
        Children become competent at categorizing and sorting objects into hierarchical structures.
        
        They understand that the same object can be looked at and categorized in more than one way.
        
        Spatial awareness ⇒ they understand distance, maps and directions
        
        At age 7: intellectual revolution
        
        Children do not follow the rules of 'formal logic' yet. ⇒ they're unable to imagine another perspective but their own.
        
        Children begin to use language and imagery as meaning-making systems
        
        children make huge progress in their intellectual development
- - - - how these processes contribute to and complement the individual's internal development
    - - The adult and the child interact and together they construct new knowledge ⇒ intermental stage
        
        Following this stage, it is possible for the child to internalize the new knowledge for individual reflection and understanding ⇒ intramental stage
        
        Under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers, intramental activity is accelerated by intermental (social) activity.
      - Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
        
        A metaphorical space between the child's level of current ability and the potential ability, which can be achieved with the careful assistance of someone else ⇒ a more knowledgeable expert - parent/ teacher-
        
        Learning and intellectual development ⇒ embedded in contextual factors
        
        effective dialogue can accelerate the learning process
        
        It's important to pay attention to individual differences
        
        consider alternative ways and levels of assisting learners
        
        Scaffolding
        
        A special type of assistance that experts provide to novices
        
        The expert guides and supports the novice with information
        
        The expert may intervene to simplify the task and to encourage the novice to persevere with the task
        
        Effective interaction is crucial
        
        Both the novice and the expert are active participants in the learning process
        
        Learning ⇒ it's a shared responsibility
        
        Learners make unsolicited comments
        
        Tutors
        
        provide a bridge between learners' existing knowledge and the new task
        
        provide a focus and a structure to support the learners' problem solving
        
        ensure that the learners participate actively in the process of solving the task
        
        build on learners' responses
        
        encourage learners to use language effectively by paraphrasing their utterances and introducing formal phrases
        
        Intermental Development Zone (IDZ)
        
        Teachers and learners must talk to create a shared communicative space and this zone
        
        The teacher and the learner negotiate
        
        If the quality of the zone is successfully maintained, the teacher can enable the learner to become able to operate beyond their established capability
        
        the learner consolidates this experience as new ability and understanding
      - Teacher talk might be adjusted to make input comprehensible to all learners
        
        role of language
        
        as a communicative tool
        
        share and develop knowledge
        
        as a psychological tool
        
        organise, plan and review thoughts and actions
        
        Classroom talk is where learning happens ⇒ talk with teachers and learners
- - - - Hardware ⇒ the nervous system and the brain, sensory receptors and neural connections
        
        Software ⇒ mental programmes
        
        Brain growth
        
        Seems to occur at the age of 1.5-2 years, 7-9 years, 12 and 15 and finally between 18 -20.
        
        first spurt coincides with increase in L1 development
        
        Another spurt may signal significant developments in abstract thinking and literacy development
      - Mind ⇒ multi-store model
        
        input ⇒ the mind and the individual chooses to attend to it
        
        it gets stored and processed
        
        short-term memory store
        
        It's of limited capacity
        
        long-term memory store
        
        It has infinite capacity
        
        Levels of processing model
        
        information can be stores in different ways
        
        Meaningful information will be retained more permanently in the long-term memory store
        
        When this link is strengthened, it becomes automatised
        
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        Attention
        
        learners need attention and notice information to be stored
        
        Planning makes attention more effective and goal-directed
        
        improves sharply in middle childhood
        
        Expertise
        
        domain-specific knowledge ⇒ enhance the ability to store, remember and retrieve information
        
        Mental representations
        
        Children progress from a more perceptually organised representation to a more conceptually organised representation base
        
        implications for teaching vocabulary
        
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        Memory strategies
        
        Short -term memory
        
        Aim: recall
        
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        Long-term memory
        
        Aim: retrieval
        
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        They're acquired as a result of learning and training efforts
        
        Strategy deficiencies
        
        Production deficiency
        
        control deficiency
        
        Utilisation deficiency
        
        If the new information is important, the individual needs to transfer it from the short-term memory store into the long-term store
- - - - Children do not control their emotions and their self-concepts are very basic
      - 'learning optimists'
        
        very high self-esteem
    - - Their self-concept becomes more complex and sophisticated
      - They compare to their peers
        
        create a more realistic picture of the self and their self-esteem adjusts
    - - Further development of the control of emotions
      - Lower self-esteem and motivation
    - - Friendship is very important to young children
        
        Trust becomes an important aspect
        
        Sex segregation
        
        Boys groups
        
        Girls group
        
        consider friendship groups for group and pair work
        
        children respond better to tasks in a secure, friendly environment
      - common activities
      - living nearby
      - shared values
      - understanding
      - shared interests
      - intimacy, loyalty