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Controversies Revision - Sexism - Coggle Diagram
Controversies Revision - Sexism
Gender Difference or Gender Bias
Argument
Sexism in psychology can result from this ‘male as norm’ perspective. Androcentric views are used as the standard or norm to explain psychological experiences of both sexes. Differences between the sexes may be wrongly exaggerated or key, important aspects of life for one gender may be ignored. It is argued that in psychology this kind of sexism has mostly affected women and even some say, continues to do so with women still often portrayed as inferior in some way.
Alpha bias is a tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women. The consequence is that an alpha biased theory devalues one gender in comparison to the other. Alpha bias exists in psychology and devalues women.
Beta-biased theories tend to either ignore questions about the lives of women, or assume that insights derived from studies of men will apply equally well to women. There is an androcentric bias in psychology. Arguably women are overlooked.
Evidence
Freud’s theory of psychosexual development.
It can be argued that this is an example of alpha bias rather than genuine gender difference because there is evidence that this is exaggeration and distortion, an example of alpha bias, because research challenges this view. For example, Hoffman discussed studies of moral behaviour in which the tendency of children to do what they had been told not to was assessed.
Kohlberg’s research into moral reasoning.
Evaluation
Alpha bias is mostly in the past
Feminist psychologists argue that there is still alpha bias even in highly respected and very scientific areas of psychology.
Beta bias can lead to alpha bias
A number of countries now recognise that the world is not simply divided into males and females, and allow individuals to state their gender as male, female or other. It follows therefore that when psychology discusses ‘gender differences’ the discussion needs to be updated, respectful and sophisticated.
Heterosexism
Argument
Heterosexism is the sexist assumption that the ‘natural’ kind of sexual/romantic relationship is between males and females. It involves a system of attitudes, bias and discrimination in favour of opposite-sex sexuality and relationships. It can therefore include the presumption that people are heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions are the norm and therefore superior.
There is under-representation and devaluing of the experiences of LGBT+ people in psychological search.
This is particularly evident in areas of psychology research such as relationships. For many years mainstream social psychological research tended to focus on romantic love relationships among heterosexuals. This has promoted a view that heterosexuality is the norm s the implication is that any other type of relationship is somehow ‘different’ to the norm, hence, abnormal in some way.
Evidence
Heterosexist research studies - Evolutionary explanations of relationship formation include research by Buss ‘Sex differences in human mate preference’. The study assumes heterosexualaity and focuses on sexual selection for males based on the likelihood of reproductive success - men seek a fertile female partner. Women seek a mate who can provide resources to allow her to reproduce successfully. This research may perpetuate biased stereotypes of ‘normal’ mate selection.
Academic writing exposes the issue - Under-representation was challenged by Wood and Duck in their book entitled Understudied Relationships, where they argued that psychological research actually only focused on a small sample of human relationships, ignoring many others such as lesbian and gay relationships
Heterosexism in ‘therapies’ - In the past psychology has been involved in, not just theoretical discrimination and prejudice in research, it has also played a role in applying harmful, sexist therapies
Evaluation
Psychologists may be criticised of gender bias whether they do or don’t try to avoid Heterosexism
Heterosexism in Psychology needs to be understood in a historical context - Psychology has reflected discrimination in society.
There are further problems in trying to address Heterosexism in other cultures where homosexuality is still taboo or even illegal. In such cultures, research into non-heterosexual relationships may be almost impossible and so the experiences of non-heterosexual people will continue to be invisible in psychology.
The BPS has a Psychology of Sexualities Section which aims to provide an integrative forum for those involved in research, teaching and applied work in the UK. Research is still socially sensitive, ongoing and socially and politically much needed. Psychology still arguably has a duty to challenge discrimination and prejudice against LGBT+ individuals. It is important that researchers also represent these groups if psychology is to be inclusive.
The Historical and Social Context of the Issue of Sexism in Psychology
Argument
Sexism is not new nor is it restricted to psychology. Sexism has permeated society in the past and arguably still remains today. As long as there is sexism in society, there will be sexism in psychology.
Areas of psychology, which consider the role of gender in behaviour often, reflect historical views of females as the ‘fair’ or ‘weaker’ sex.
All of the previous positive examples show that many psychologists are highlighting unacceptable sexism in the science of mind and behaviour. Awareness of such issues is socially sensitive and it may be argued that psychology is shining a light on sexist attitudes in society. However, issues still exist in society and psychology.
Evidence
Androcentric theories
It is often assumed that it is men limiting the aspirations and undervaluing the achievements of women, however it is not just men. There were no actual gender differences in crawling yet mothers had lower expectations for girls. This suggests sexism may be ingrained from an early age.
A study at Yale University showed that even scientists who are known for their ability to look at data and make rational and objective decisions, systematically evaluated men as more able than women, despite the men and women having identical qualifications.
Evaluation
Psychology recognises this past and has moved on. Freud’s research is generally considered outdated.
Attitudes to female scientists have changed
Research currently still supports gender differences that society needs to recognise. Women are twice as likely as men to experience clinical depression in their lifetimes. Men are twice as likely to become alcoholic or drug-dependent, and 40% more likely to develop Sz.
Psychology has a duty to keep investigating.
Ethical issues - In a world where there is increasingly concern about violence against women, misogyny, rising number of male suicides, reports of homophobia and transphobia, psychology has an ethical duty to be the science of mind and behaviour that are inclusive and progressive.
The Invisibility of Women in Psychology
Argument
Traditionally women have been ‘invisible’ as researchers and as participants. There are many examples of how women are considered to be left out in psychology. It is said that this is no different to other scientific subjects such as STEM subjects where women are under-represented.
Women are now much more visible: For example, in higher education, women weren’t given access to university courses and degrees in significant numbers until the 20th century. Now more women than men go to university.
Evidence
Women invisible as respected researchers: APA Top 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century’ featured only six women.
Women invisible as participants: There are examples of androcentric samples such as the sample unused by Kohlberg. Many famous studies in psychology used only male participants and generalised the results to women.
Women invisible in theories: This includes the beta bias already discussed. For example, female behaviour has, until quite recently, been largely ‘invisible’ in theories of stress which focus on the ‘fight or flight’ response.
Females are visible in classrooms and lecture theatres
Females are visibly attaining higher level qualifications - More women are doing research. Women with postgraduate qualifications may become the influential researchers of the future. The numbers are showing progress.
Evaluation
It’s not just psychology - Arguably the issue of the invisibility of women in psychology is part of a wider problem of the invisibility of women in other areas of science and academia. The under representation of women in other scientific subjects such as STEM subjects highlights a need to take a critical look at psychology as part of a wider problem.
Women now have equality and more visibility - Equal opportunities legislation and feminist psychology have performed valuable functions in highlighting and hopefully reducing instances of gender bias.
There is a rise of feminist psychology challenging bias and the invisibility of women.
However, it may be that many women in psychology have been working hard but it is harder for their work to be visible and their voices to be heard
Women are still undervalued in psychology.
Programmes such as the ATHENA Swan accreditation have encouraged the employment and promotion of women in scientific fields.