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Chapter 10 Mind Map, Plant Sex Cells, Adventitious Shoot Example,…

- - - - gametes (either sperm or eggs)
      - formed by meiosis
      - sperm-producing individuals are male
      - egg-producing individuals are female
      - a fertilized egg (zygote) occurs when sperm and eggs are brought together
    - - also called sporophyte generation
      - one phase of the plant life cycle
      - sporophytes
        
        are always diploid
        
        has organs and cells capable of undergoing meiosis
        
        meiosis produces haploid spores
      - gametes
        
        fuse with other gametes through fertilization (or syngamy)
        
        fertilization produces diploid zygote
        
        die if fertilization does not occur
      - spores
        
        cannot undergo meiosis
        
        undergoes mitosis to form a haploid plant (gametophyte)
        
        types of gametophytes grown from spores
        
        microspores (sperm/male)
        
        megaspores (eggs/female)
      - heterospory
        
        having two types of spores
        
        typically, one kind of sporophyte occurs in a generation and it produces both microspores and megaspores
  - - - basically a stem with leaf-like structures
      - almost everything with vegetative shoots
      - secondary growth does not occur in flowers
      - flower stalk is a pedicel
      - receptacle is located at end of axis, where other flower parts are
      - four types of flower appendages
        
        sepals
        
        petals
        
        stamen
        
        carpals
      - most flowers have all four parts and are complete flowers
      - some species may lack one or two of the appendages
      - flowers without all four parts are incomplete flowers
    - - lowermost and outermost of the floral appendages
      - modified leaves that surround and enclose the other flower parts
      - thickest, toughest, waxiest part of the flower
      - all sepals together are referred to as the calyx
      - protects
        
        bud as it develops
        
        against bacterial and fungal spores
        
        against insect feeding
        
        against nectar-robbing
    - - petals are located above sepals
      - sepals and petals together make up the perianth
      - petals together make up the corolla
      - petals are leaf-like, being broad, flat, and thin
      - contain pigments other than chlorophyll
      - important in attracting the correct pollinators for the flower
      - pigmentation can absorb UV light, creating patterns that only insects can see
    - - stamens are located above the petals
      - all stamens together make up the androecium
      - has two parts
        
        filament (stalk)
        
        anther (where pollen is produced)
      - microspore mother cells
        
        also called microsporocytes
        
        enlarged cells in anther
        
        undergo meiosis producing four microspores
        
        neighboring anther cells (tapetum) act as nurse cells
      - microspores
        
        initially remain in a tetrad
        
        later separate and expand
        
        forms an especially resistant wall
        
        eventually called pollen
    - - located at the highest level on the receptacle
      - all carpels together form gynoecium
      - three main parts
        
        stigma (catches pollen grains)
        
        style (elevates the stigma to a useful position)
        
        ovary (where megaspores are produced)
      - flowers can have zero or many carpels
      - carpals are usually fused together to form a pistil
      - placentae
        
        located inside of the ovary
        
        hold small structures called ovules
      - ovules
        
        have a short stalk (funiculus)
        
        has a central mass of parenchyma (nucellus)
        
        some (usually one) nucellus cells enlarge for meiosis
        
        enlarged cells are megaspore mother cells (or megasporocytes)
        
        usually only one megaspore survives
        
        surviving megaspore absorbs protoplasm of other three
        
        megaspore remains inside of carpel
        
        ovule develops into a seed after egg is fertilized
  - - - developed from microspores
      - small and simple, consisting of about three cells
      - divides mitotically, producing a large vegetative cell and a small generative cell
      - generative cell divides again to form two sperm cells
      - after pollen grain lands on a stigma, it germinates by producing a pollen tube
    - - developed from surviving megaspore
      - in one type of division, the nucleus undergoes three divisions
      - eight haploid nuclei are formed from mitotic division
      - multiple nuclei are still in an undivided cell
      - multinucleate megagametophyte is called an embryo sac
      - cell undergoes cell division to form
        
        seven cells with one nuclei
        
        one cell with two nuclei (binucleate)
      - obtains all its nourishment from the parent sporophyte
  - - - plasmogamy (fusion of the protoplasts of the gametes)
      - karyogamy (fusion of the nuclei)
    - - second sperm migrates to central cell
      - undergoes karyogamy to form a large endosperm nucleus
      - this nucleus is triploid
      - this process is called double fertilization
  - - - embryo
      - suspensor (pushes embryo into endosperm)
    - - monocots only have one cotyledon that grows
      - dicots have both cotyledons
    - - radicle (embryonic root)
      - epicotyl (embryonic stem)
      - hypocotyl (root/shoot junction)
    - - also called testa
      - formed from expanded integuments that surround the nucellus
  - - - exocarp (outer layer/ skin or peel)
      - mesocarp (middle layer/ flesh)
      - endocarp (inner layer/ layer surrounding seed(s))
- - - - pollination of a carpel by pollen from the same flower
      - pollination of a carpel by pollen of a flower of the same plant
  - - - chemical reactions between pollen and carpels that prevent pollen growth
      - prevents self-pollination
      - prevents pollination between close relatives
  - - - flowers with both essential organs
      - may lack nonessential organs
    - - species is said to be doiecious
      - some individuals produce only staminate flowers
      - some individuals produce only carpellate flowers
      - ex: marijuana, dates, willows, papaya, etc
      - extreme adaptation that ensures cross-pollination
    - - species is said to be monoecious
      - staminate and carpellate flowers are on the same plant
      - ex: cattails, corn, melons, pumpkins, etc
  - - - evolution of plants and insects evolving together
      - flower became adapted for visitation by certain individual
      - insect became efficient for exploitation of the flower
      - also occurred between flowers and bats / birds
    - - actinomorphic (regular) - radially symmetrical
      - zygomorphic - bilaterally symmetrical
  - - - inferior ovary or other parts are epigynous
      - half-inferior ovaries or other parts perigynous
      - superior ovaries or other parts are hypogynous
- - - - used to refer to fruits containing only ovarian tissue
      - ex: innermost part of apple
    - - used to refer to fruits containing any non-ovarian tissue
      - also called false fruit
      - ex: remainder of apple
    - - most common
      - developed from a single ovary or fused ovaries of one flower
      - ex: apples and peaches
    - - occurs when separate carpals of one gynoecium fuse during development
      - ex: raspberries and blackberries
    - - occurs when all individual fruits fuse into one fruit
      - ex: figs, mulberries, and pineapple
  - - - dry
      - fleshy
    - - not typically eaten by natural seed-distributing animals
      - fruit opening classifications
        
        dehiscent fruits (break open to release seeds)
        
        indehiscent fruits (do not open)
      - ex: beans and peas
    - - eaten by natural seed-distributing animals
      - mostly indehiscent
      - ex: grapes and tomatoes
- - - - timing of initiation
      - timing of maturation
      - timing of flower opening
    - - determinate inflorescences
      - indeterminate inflorescences
    - - limited potential for growth
      - terminal flower opens first, then lower ones, and so on
    - - much larger potential for growth
      - flowers open at edges first, then further in, and so on
      - many different types of indeterminate inflorescences