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Social and emotional Development - Coggle Diagram
Social and emotional Development
Social definition
“Human beings have a pervasive drive to form and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and significant interpersonal relationships” (Baumeister & Leary, 1995, p. 497)
Social-emotional development focuses on how children understand and interact with the social world
Ability to form and sustain positive relationships
Social cognition
Emotional intelligence (understanding ourselves & others)
Universal need to be social
Do we have a predisposition to be social?
Social interaction begins prenatally
Auditory
Physical, e.g., prenatal twin interaction (Castiello et al., 2010)
Desire for social interaction is present at birth
Prefer faces over objects
Originally thought newborns can already imitate others, but social imitation actually emerges between 12-18 months old (Jones, 2009)
Social Development
In Infancy
0-3 months
Looks at faces one foot away; comforted by familiar adult; responds positively to touch; listens to voices; smiles in response to social stimulation
3-6 months
Gives warm smiles and laugh out loud; recognises faces; notices a difference between two people; smile at herself in the mirror; enjoys looking at other babies
6-9 months
Has several clear emotions; shows comfort around familiar people and anxiety around strangers; plays games like “patty cake”
9-12 months
Express several clear emotions; respond by turning to look when name called; imitates actions (e.g., waving); understands the word “no”; begins using single words
In Early Years
12 - 18 months
Curious about people; explores with enthusiasm; responds to changes in daily routine
18-24 months
Laughs out loud; plays next to other children; protests and says “no”; curious about environment and toys
24-30 months
Use words to communicate; playful with others; likes people; uses pretend play; enjoys lots of different toys and games
30-36 months
Able to play independently; easily separates from caregivers in familiar places; begins to share with others; shows feelings for others
Social Development with siblings
Relationships with siblings benefit social development
Social competence
Emotional functioning
Theory of mind
Sibling rivalry
Play and social development
Solitary play
Spectator play
Parallel play
Associative play
Cooperative play
Individual Differences
Not all children develop the same–there are individual differences in children’s social development
Cultural differences (e.g., level of helpfulness)
Poverty
Gender differences
Example of Gender Differences
Awareness of gender (ages 3-4)
Toy preferences
Playmate preferences
Same-sex playmates
Size of the peer group
Style of play
Boys: rough & tumble, dominance
Girls: pretend scenarios, emotional closeness
Use of language with peers
Developmental disabilities
Abnormal Social Development
There may be problematic social development if a toddler or preschooler:
Does not show any apprehension about strangers
Lacks interest or curiosity about people or toys
Inappropriate or limited ability to express feelings
Fails to explore his or her environment
Always sad and withdrawn
Significant language delays
Sense of self
Social-emotional development includes an understanding of others as well as of the self
Factors influencing the development of views of the self
Previous performance & achievements
Behaviors of others
Group memberships
Through interactions with others, we come to understand ourselves
Psychosocial Development
Overview
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
Proposed that the ego (sense of self) develops as it successfully resolves natural crises that emerge in life that are social in nature
Eight total stages across the lifespan, we’ll focus on the first four (ages 0-12)
Trust vs. mistrust
Autonomy vs. shame
Initiative vs. guilt
Industry vs. inferiority
Trust vs Mistrust
Infancy (ages 0 - 1 ½)
Infant is uncertain of the world, dependent upon primary caregiver
Is the world a safe place (trust) or is it full of unpredictable events and accidents waiting to happen (mistrust)?
When care is consistent & predictable, develop sense of trust which they carry with them to other relationships
If care inconsistent or unreliable, develop mistrust and have anxiety & insecurities in relationships with others
Autonomy vs shame
Early childhood (ages 1 ½ to 3)
Becoming more mobile and asserting independence
Am I able to do things on my own (autonomy) or should I doubt my own abilities (shame)?
When encouraged & supported to try things on their own, become more confident and secure in their ability to survive in the world
If criticised or overly controlled, they become overly dependent upon others & lack self-esteem
Initiative vs guilt
Play age (ages 3-5)
Beginning to play with peers, asserting oneself
Am I able to make decisions and lead others (initiative) or should I be timid (guilt)?
When children have an opportunity to plan activities, make up games, ask questions, and interact with others, they feel secure in their ability to lead & make decisions
If not allowed (e.g., parents try to stop to protect the child, treat questions as trivial) then the child feels guilty, slow to interact with others, inhibition of creativity
Industry vs Inferiority
School age (ages 5-12)
Learning literacy and numeracy; teacher plays important role
Am I confident in achieving my goals (industry) or should I doubt myself (inferiority)?
When praised for their work, children are diligent, persevering, & put work before pleasure
If children are ridiculed or punished for their efforts, or if they fail to meet teacher and parent expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority
Balance needed to achieve modesty
Why these stages matter
Viewed as a series of developmental tasks (or crises) that children must overcome for healthy psychosocial development
The needs of the individual (psycho) may sometimes conflict with the needs of society (social)
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages, although they can be resolved at a later time (e.g., therapy)
Some critiques of the theory, but it provides a useful framework within which social development can be considered
Friendships and peers
As children enter schooling, peer relationships become increasingly important
Types of relationships
Friendship dyads
Cliques
Peer groups and peer crowds
Peer relationships can be either adaptive or maladaptive for child development
The functions of friendships
Direct and indirect influences
Sharing and reciprocity
Intimacy
Social comparison
Getting information or help
Social learning (Bandura and Vygotsky)
Sense of belonging
Peer influences on pupils
Much research has found that connections to peers matter for educational outcomes such as motivation & achievement, for example:
Children are socialized by their peers - Kindermann (2007): The levels of academic engagement of the peer group that a pupil spends their time with predicts changes in their own engagement across time
Having friends matters - Buhs, Ladd, & Herald (2006): Pupils excluded a lot by their peers over time had lower classroom participation and in turn lower academic achievement
Bullying in schools
What is bullying?
A relationship in which the power is imbalanced and there is an aggressive act intended to do harm
Primary members are bullies and victims, but also bystanders
Forms of bullying
Physical, verbal, social/relational, cyber
Why children bully peers
Human nature?
Evolutionary pressure to be dominant
In-group bias and out-group rejection
Part of child development?
Impulsivity based on still-developing immature brains
Children still in process of moral development
Psychopathology?
Not all, but in some cases possibly due to underlying psychopathologies
Peer bullying in young children
Bullying develops early on (Vlachou et al., 2011)
20% of children ages 2-5 had experienced bullying
25% of 4 year olds were bullies and 22% were victims
Physical, verbal, and social exclusion
Fighting is different from typical rough & tumble play - Helpful resource from the National Association for the Education of Young Children
Most common in activity spaces & playgrounds
Peer bullying in school (statistics)
Amount of bullying in the UK
43% of young people (13-20) admitted to being bullied
Of those bullied, 98% bullied by a peer, 17% by a sibling, 13% by a teacher, 8% by parents/guardians
Of those bullied, 45% did not report it
Of those bullied, 29% self harmed, 27% skipped class
Highest risk: disability, LGBTQ, low income background
A helpful resource for children: Childline
Impact of peer bullying
On the victims
Anxiety, social isolation, depression, eating disorders
Chronic victimisation changes brain function and increased cortisol leadings to poorer health outcomes
On the bullies
By secondary school, more moral disengagement, aggression, susceptible to peer pressure
A developmental trajectory of dating aggression, marital abuse, child abuse, & elder abuse (Pepler et al., 1997)
Implications for schooling
Child care, nursery school, and preschool are significant contexts for social development
Contain a range of types of social interaction
The social and emotional climate of the classroom can enhance or impede the social development of children
Implications for teaching
Classroom management (respect, conflict-resolution, bullying)
Promoting play & positive peer interactions
Modelling positive & warm social relationships
Make sure to:
Establish a positive social & emotional climate
Personal interest in every student
Reinforce positive behaviours
Prevent misbehaviour through engaging activities
Emotionally safe classroom, open to mistakes