Language development
Background
Why do we have language?
The origin of human language has been discussed for many centuries
Evolution - humans are social beings that need language to negotiate, form bonds, work in teams
Allows us to convey information, share knowledge with offspring, ask questions, reason about things which are and are not, assign labels to abstract concepts
Do non-human animals have language?
What is language?
•The ability to acquire and use a complex system of communication
•Language is made up of socially-shared rules
•Babies born with a natural pre-disposition to adapt to language
•Language vs. speech – speech is a verbal means of communicating but is just one aspect of language, e.g., sign language, writing
Terminology
Linguistics: scientific study of language
Literacy: ability to read, write, and use language
Phonology: how speech sounds are produced (phonics)
Semantics: the meaning of words (vocabulary)
Syntax: the grammatical rules we use to combine words into sentences (grammar)
Pragmatics: how we use language within a social context
Developmental Trajectory
Cooing stage
1-4 months
Baby makes vowel sounds, e.g., “ooo” and “aaa”
Can occur while baby is alone and suggests experimenting with making sounds
Babbling stage
5-12 months
First consonant sounds appear and tend to be repetitive, e.g., “ma-ma”, “da-da”, or “ba-ba-ba”
Around 8-10 months variation in intonation begins and starts to sound like talking
Receptive communication (being able to comprehend meaning of words) emerges
One word stage
10-18 months
Common first words that appear around 10-11 months: dada, mama, hi, cat, doggy, ball, no, nana, bye, uh oh, car
Understand meaning
Understand 2x as many words as they can say
Two - word stage
18-24 months
Resemble sentences “mama wave”, “all broke”, or “dog eat”
First use of syntax (noun comes before verb)
Egocentric with focus on personal needs
Multiword stage
24-30 months
Sentences still tend to be short but start to build (3-6 words)
Have around 200-300 words in their vocabulary
Basic components of language developing, e.g., “Want more milk”
Fine tuning stage
30+ months
Starts to move towards competence in conversation (e.g., taking turns)
By age 3 children have around 500-1,000 words in their “expressive” vocabulary but understand many more in their “receptive” vocabulary
Acquisition is continuous and aspects of language development are lifelong (e.g., vocabulary)
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Differences in language development
Common errors in Speech
Examples of common errors in speech around ages 2- 4
Later sounds in words affecting earlier sounds, e.g., saying ‘lellow’ instead of ‘yellow’
Repeating a syllable twice, e.g., ‘wawa’ instead of ‘water’
Final consonant deletion, e.g., ‘I wan it ba’ instead of ‘I want it back’
Missing some syllables, e.g., ‘brella’ instead of ‘umbrella’
Gliding, e.g., ‘the wabbit wuvs wed wibbons’ instead of ‘the rabbit loves red ribbons’
These do not necessarily indicate a speech development issue and should correct themselves over time
Intervention (e.g., speech pathologist) only needed if features persist after age 5, if the child shows anxiety or frustration, and/or if speech seems noticeably less developed than peers
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As a reminder, development is both universal (follows common stages) but also unique
Language development does not always follow the same path due to a variety of factors, e.g.,
Socioeconomic status
Gender
Culture
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Language development differs across cultures
E.g., in Mandarin Chinese, different intonations have different meanings
Our native language is established in the first months of life
A recent study found that if you move countries and forget your birth language, you learn it much easier as an adult (Choi et al., 2017)
Girls learn first word earlier
Average 20 month old girl has twice the vocabulary of a 20 month old boy
Developmental disorders
Different Models/Approaches to Language Development
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Aphasia – impairment in ability to use words
Apraxia – impairment in ability to speak
Dyslexia
Autism
ADHD
Hearing impairment/deafness
Brain Damage
Selective Mutism – anxiety disorder
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Up to 10% of children, with ~ 4% severely affected
Not only trouble with reading
Other difficulties
Processing auditory information
Writing & punctuation
Breaking down words into individual sounds
Structuring thoughts during conversation
1 in 100 children
Great variability in terms of language ability
Common Patterns
-Repetitive or rigid language
-Narrow interests (monologue about a particular interest)
-Uneven language development
-May not respond to the speech of others
-Poor nonverbal conversation skills
Attention issues and speech-language issues sometimes coexist
Children with ADHD may:
-Start talking later than expected
-Trouble with voice quality and volume
-Trouble organising thoughts into speech, e.g., saying everything that comes to mind or stammering/stuttering
-Lose track of the conversation
Assessing Language Ability
How do professionals determine a child’s level of language development compared to others?
Many standardised assessments have been created by educators and researchers e.g
British Picture Vocabulary Scale (BPVS3), often used in UK schools, sometimes as proxy for IQ (why might this be problematic?)
New Reynell Developmental Language Scales (NRDLS)
Phonological Assessment Battery (PhAB)
Behaviourist Approach
Skinner offered one of the first scientific accounts of language development
Argued that language occurs due to behaviourist principles of operant conditioning and reinforcement, largely from parents/caretakers
E.g., saying “more milk” is rewarded with more milk
Nativist Approach
Noam Chomsky argued for the nativist theory, which says that humans are born with an instinctive ability to acquire & produce language
Called this mental capacity Learning Acquisition Device (LAD)
How else would children be able to learn language as quickly as they do (poverty of the stimulus)?
Social Interaction Approach
Jerome Bruner argued that language development occurs in the context of adult-child interaction
Social-cognitive model of language construction (builds upon Piaget & Vygotsky)
Caretakers play an important role through social interaction, but also views children as active and interactive
Which is correct?
Behaviorist theory ignores our quick adaption to grammar, nativist theory ignores the role of environment, while social interaction may provide a nice balance (still up for debate by researchers)
Language development relies on both nature (mental tools for language capacity) and nurture (social interactions and instruction)
The role of the teacher is important for language acquisition
Bilingualism Development
Bilingual infants learn two different linguistic codes and engage in discriminating, sorting, and computing two types of speech
It is a myth that the two languages compete for resources – slightly reduced exposure to each language may cause slightly slower acquisition for one or both language, but the child can become highly proficient in both languages
Bilingualism has many interpersonal, occupational, and cognitive benefits, starting in childhood and across the lifespan
Multiple languages are best acquired during childhood, with exposure to proficient speakers, and when there is a need to use both languages
Supporting Language acquisition
Practices that support children's learning acquisition
-Naturalistic conversation - better to learn vocabulary in context (reading, conversation, etc.) rather than traditional efforts (flash cards, dictionary)
-Whole communication: include gestures, facial expressions, touch, and images in addition to speaking
-Provide print materials widely across the classroom
-Expand upon pupils’ statements and ask follow-up questions
-Scaffold literacy learning by giving children some responsibility while reading
-Being patient and listening carefully when children are speaking
Creative pedagogical approaches
-Have children write stories or read out loud to others in addition to just listening – don’t discourage by focusing on errors in spelling, syntax, etc.
-Literacy play activities – incorporate language into natural play settings, e.g., restaurant, taking orders, menus
-Circle time to practice speaking and listening
-Songs and nursery rhymes
-And many more!