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CIRCULATORY SYSTEM, -pass through capillary walls, -secrete heparin and…

- - - - excess filtered fluid to the bloodstream
    - - small amounts of proteins
    - - fats and fat soluble vitamins
    - - defend the body against infection
    - - edema formation
  - - - Regions that lymph vessels gather
      - Occur in
        
        tissues of almost all organs (except brain, spinal cord, eyes)
      - Branch extensively
      - Lymphatic capillaries
        
        dead end in the extracellular fluid
      - Include
        
        smooth muscle in walls and one way valves that prevent backflow
      - Flow of lymph
        
        regulated by
        
        internal pressure from breathing
        
        skeletal muscle contraction
    - - Important for
        
        proper functioning the immune system
        
        acting as filters for foreign particles and cancer cells
      - Passes through
        
        at least one node before being delivered to the blood stream
      - Each nodes have inner chambers
        
        Lymphocytes and plasma cells pack each chamber
      - Distrubuted widely throughout the body
        
        including: armpit, stomach, lymphatic vessels
    - - Humans have 1-2 liters of lymph fluid
      - Takes part in the circulation together with the blood circulation
      - Does not include red blood cells
      - Has less blood proteins
    - - Left Lymphatic duct / Thoracic duct
        
        from abdomen & legs, left side of head, neck and arm to right atrium
      - Right Lymphatic duct
        
        from right side of head, neck and arm to right atrium
    - - Tonsils
        
        located in throat
        
        contain
        
        white blood cells
      - Adenoids
      - Thymus
        
        secretes
        
        hormones concerned with the activity of T-lymphocytes
      - Appendix
      - Spleen
        
        include
        
        production of lymphocytes
        
        destroy
        
        foreign particles
      - Patches of tissue in the small intestine
      - Lymph nodes
        
        Production centers of infection-fighting cells, including lymphocytes
        
        Sites for some defense responses
  - - - Increase in intercellular fluid due to a disorder in the lymphatic system
    - - swelling of lymph nodes with their abnormal division in lymphatic structures
    - - Swollen lymph nodes as a result of infection from bacteria or viruses
- - - - The two upper thin walled chambers
        
        atria
      - The two lower, thick-walled chambers
        
        ventricles
    - - Myocardium
        
        middle layer
        
        made up of cardiac muscle
        
        thicker than other layers
      - Endocardium
        
        contacts with blood
        
        does not have blood vessels
        
        Innermost, smooth and single layer
      - Pericardium
        
        outermost tough connective tissue sac
        
        made up of two layer
        
        innermost membrane is epicardium
        
        fluid secreted by
        
        the pericardium reduces friction between the beating heart and the surrounding tissues
        
        attached to the diaphragm
    - - allow blood to flow from atria into ventricles
      - right side
        
        tricuspid valve (has 3 flaps)
      - left side
        
        bicuspid valve (mitral valve)
    - - allow blood to move from the ventricles into
        
        the pulmonary artery
        
        the aort
      - prevent backflow
        
        from arteries into ventricles
    - - arise from the base of the aorta
      - pass over the surface of the heart
      - supply the capillaries of the cardiac muscle with oxygenated blood
    - - HEART BEAT
        
        The heart beats in a coordinated fashion
        
        Both ventricles contract and pump blood into the arteries
        that exit the heart
        
        All chambers relax briefly before the cycle repeats
        
        Both atria contract and pump blood into the ventricles
        
        Regulation of Heartbeat Rate
        
        Nervous Control of Heart Rate
        
        send messages to cardio-vascular centers in the
        medulla oblongata of the brain
        
        Sympathetic nerves (accelerator nerve)
        
        release adrenaline (epinephrine)
        
        speeds the heart rate
        
        increases the strength of contraction
        
        Parasympathetic nerves (Vagus nerves)
        
        release acetylcholine
        
        slows the heart rate
        
        decreases the force of contraction
        
        Non-nervous Control of Heart Beating Rat
        
        act directly on cardiac muscle
        
        stimuluses
        
        Low temperature
        
        decreases heart rate
        
        High temperature
        
        increases heart rate
        
        Low pH
        
        increases heart rate
        
        High pH
        
        decreases heart rate
        
        Stimulants (caffeine or nicotine)
        
        increases heart rate
      - contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle
      - phases
        
        Diastole / relaxation phase
        
        blood flows
        
        from veins into heart chambers
        
        The heart is relaxed
        
        The semilunar valves are closed
        
        The atrioventricular valves are open
        
        Systole / contraction phase
        
        blood flows
        
        from atria into ventricles
        
        The ventricles contract
        
        The atria contract
        
        The semilunar valves are open
        
        The atrioventricular valves are closed
      - less than 1 second
        
        0.30 second
        
        ventricles contract and push the blood out of the heart, completing systole
        
        0.40 seconds
        
        heart relaxes and blood flows into the atria and ventricles
        
        first 0.15 second
        
        the atria contract and force blood into the ventricle
  - - - Right ventricle pumps the blood through the pulmonary arteries to lungs
      - The pulmonary arteries are the only arteries
        that carry deoxygenated blood
      - The pulmonary veins are the only veins that carry
        oxygenated blood
    - - The Renal Circulation
        
        bring blood to and from the kidneys where wastes, excess water,
        and other substances are removed from the blood
      - The Coronary (Cardiac) Circulation
        
        supplies blood to the heart muscle
        
        includes the coronary arteries and veins
      - from the left ventricle
        
        blood is pumped out into the aorta
      - The Hepatic Portal Circulation
        
        transports blood from the digestive tract to the liver
      - begins in the left ventricle
  - - - carry blood away from the heart
      - walls of arteries are thicker and more elastic
      - blood pressure is high and pulsatile
      - no semi-lunar valves
      - blood flow is rapid
      - Transports oxygenated blood except in pulmonary artery
    - - blood pressure is low and nonpulsatile
      - backflow of the blood is prevented by the semi-lunar valves
      - walls have fewer elastic and muscular fibers
      - carry blood towards the heart
      - blood flow is slow
      - transport deoxygenated blood except in pulmonary vein
    - - transport mixed oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
      - no semi-lunar valves
      - walls consist of single layer of endothelium
      - link arteries to veins
      - blood pressure is falling and nonpulsatile
      - blood flow is slowest
      - no elastic fibers
    - - middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic fibers
      - outer layer of fibrous connective tissue
      - innermost layer of squamous endothelium
    - - arteries > veins > capillaries
    - - arteries > capillaries > veins
    - - veins > arteries > capillaries
    - - arteries > veins > capillaries
    - - capillaries > veins > arteries
  - - - Regulate
        
        osmotic balance
        
        pH buffering
        
        ion concentration
      - Defence
        
        against microbes (antibody production)
      - Remove
        
        urea
        
        lactic acid
        
        carbondioxide
      - Protect
        
        clotting
      - Transport
        
        hormones
        
        nutrients
        
        oxygen
    - - plasma
      - cell-based portion
        
        Platelets Thrombocytes
        
        have no nuclei
        
        function in the blood clotting
        
        fragments of cells
        
        White blood cell Leukocytescytes
        
        major types
        
        Eosinophils
        
        -form mast cells
        
        Basophils
        
        Monocytes
        
        Lymphocytes
        
        B-Lymphocytes
        
        produce antibodies
        
        T-Lymphocytes
        
        directly atack infected cells or cancerous cells
        
        Neutrophils
        
        phagocytes
        
        produced by bone marrow and lympathic tissue
        
        have nucleus (larger than RBCs)
        
        protect body from disease-causing organisms (bacteria, viruses)
        
        colorless cells
        
        defenders of body
        
        Red blood cell Erythrocytes
        
        don't leave blood vessels
        
        generate their ATP by anaerobic metabolism
        
        produced by stem cells in the red bone marrow
        
        have cell organelles but mature cells lose them
        
        controlled by erythropoietin
        
        flattened discs
        
        cytoplasm is filled with hemoglobin
        
        destroyed in the liver or spleen
        
        at high altitudes, RBC production increase
    - - B+ / B-
      - 0+ / 0-
      - A+ / A-
      - AB+ / AB-
    - - plugs damaged blood vessels
      - protects animals from excessive blood loss
  - - - insufficient amount of hemoglobin
    - - abnormal form of hemoglobin
    - - high level of WBC
    - - an increase in blood pressure in the arteries
    - - Tissue swelling as a result of fluid accumulation in surrounding tissues
- - - - Present before any exposure to pathogens
      - Effective from the time of birth
      - Involves nonspesific responses to pathogens
      - Defenses
        
        FIRST-LINE DEFENSES (ANATOMIC BARRIERS)
        
        Involves physical and chemical barriers
        
        Saliva
        
        Mucus
        
        entraps pathogens that are then washed away or destroyed
        
        Mucous membrane secretions trap microbes entering the nose or mouth
        
        contain antibacterial proteins including lysozyme
        
        Tears
        
        Stomach acid
        
        Sweat
        
        contain chemicals that kill some bacteria
        
        Urine
        
        Skin
        
        destroy pathogens
        
        These barriers cover the external surfaces of the body
        
        line the body cavities that come in contact with the external environment such as the surfaces of the respiratory, digestive and urogenital tracts
        
        SECOND-LINE DEFENCES
        (INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE DEFENSE)
        
        Inflammatory response
        
        reaction of the body that causes
        
        redness
        
        warmth
        
        swelling
        
        pain in the area of an infection
        
        Tissue demage
        
        triggers the inflammatory response
        
        limit the spread of infection to surrounding tissues
        
        disinfect and clean infected tissues
        
        mast cells release
        
        histamine which promotes dilated blood vessels
        
        2 more items...
        
        activates if first-line defense passes and starts an infection
        
        Interferons
        
        a protein which the infected cells produce
        
        produce
        
        enzymes
        
        activate
        
        macrophages
        
        Natural killer cells
        
        attack
        
        body's own cells that have become cancerous or have been invaded by viruses
        
        kill
        
        nonself cells that encounter by releasing lysozyme enzyme
        
        Fever
        
        systemic inflammatory response
        
        triggered by pyrogens released by macrophages and toxins from pathogens
        
        during an infection
        
        macrophages release a protein that travels to the hypothalamus and raises the thermostat's set point
        
        Phagocytes
        
        white blood cells
        
        ingest foreign invaders and cellular debris by phagocytosis
        
        types
        
        macrophages
        
        -travel within the bloodstream
        
        neutrophils
        
        dendritic cells
    - - Lymphocytes
        
        white blood cells
        
        responsible for
        
        adaptive immunity
        
        originate from stem cells in the bone marrow
        
        T lymphocytes
        
        develop further in the thymus
        
        B lymphocytes
        
        continue developing in bone marrow
      - Antigen
        
        can cause an immune response by lymphocytes
      - recognizes, attacks, destroys and remembers each kind of pathogen that enters body
        
        by producing antibodies & specific cells that bind and inactivate pathogens
      - Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity
        
        provided by
        
        B cells
        
        produce specific antibodies to destroy pathogens
        
        Antibody
        
        they secrete into the blood that attack pathogens outside the body's cells
        
        a protein produced by B cells
        
        Antigen
        
        Any substance that causes body to produce antibody
      - Cell-mediated immunity
        
        produced by
        
        cytotoxic T cell
        
        attacks infected body cells
        
        kills both the cell and pathogens
        
        promote phagocytosis by
        
        other white blood cells
        
        stimulating B cells to produce antibodies
      - Phases of Adaptive Immunity
        
        The primary immune response
        
        occurs upon first exposure to an antigen
        
        slower than the secondary immune response
        
        The secondary immune response
        
        occurs upon second exposure to an antigen
        
        faster and stronger than the primary immune response
      - .
        
        Active immunity
        
        develops naturally in response to an infection
        
        developes following immunization (vaccination)
        
        Passive immunity
        
        provides immediate, short-term protection
        
        conferred artificially by injecting antibodies (serum) into a nonimmune person
  - - - The immune system attacking its own tissues
    - - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
    - - excessive reactions given by the immune system to a foreign substance
    - - It is a viral disease transmitted by ticks, leading to zoonotic infection.
    - - when the mother's antibodies break down the baby's red blood cells in the uterus and a fatal anemia occurs in the baby.