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Science and Activism, Citizen science as a form of epistemic modernisation…

- - - - Op Ed: "Yes, Science is Political"
        
        The authors argue that scientists NEED to take active steps to participate in political discourse, because of the effects that politics has on science (and vice versa!)
  - - - See PEM L12 HARDING CH 1
        
        Here, Harding describes the epistemic developments in science in the 1970s/80s as a result of neoliberal globalisation
        
        The rise of 'citizen science' is also about having citizens determine the research agenda --> They then recruit scientists for their goals!
        Examples cited: AIDS, environmental toxicology, breast cancer chemotherapy
        
        Basically, when we think of citizen science, we can consider it a form of 'epistemic modernisation', in which more viewpoints/standpoints are being incorporated into scientific research --> Standpoint epistemology?
        
        There are thus links between this and the notion of 'objectivity' where 'standpoint epistemology' is concerned (scientists cannot know the perspectives of citizens?)
        
        Epistemic Modernisation
        
        This introduction of lay/new perspectives into scientific studies and research, such that, science becomes increasingly connected to democratic goals
        
        The social composition of science becoming more diverse, minorities becoming more involved in the researching processes
- - - - People like JD Bernal, Joseph Needham, JBS Haldane, Julian Huxley
        
        Inspired by Marxist ideologies after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, and the 1931 Congress where Hessen presented his paper on Newton
        
        See Sci and Communism L1
        
        Marxism and ideas of science (dialectical materialism)
        
        To understand why Marxism promoted this view of science
        
        See Hessen's paper readings (L1) to understand his push towards recognising Newton as a man of his times, not just as a man of pure brilliance/idea!
      - Critical of the view that science was a disembodied, value-free pursuit
        
        Science only emerged out of specifically socio-political contexts and so, if powerful people controlled science, then science only served them!
        
        Instead, science to serve the workers and people requires a political re-organisation
        
        ISSUE: Scientific institutions in Britain were still viewed as spaces for scientific/academic discussion, rather than political campaigning, and so these scientists didn't manage to rally much support
    - - WWII changed the professional scientist-state relationship
        
        Scientists placed in positions to press for government funds, whether it pertains to 'basic' or 'applied' research
        
        Emergence of the MIC and the appeal of the MIC to scientists meant that scientists had good reasons to keep politics separate from science
        
        Any advoacy was in no way radical, because they didn't call for changes to the structures of government
        
        We know from SftP/Primary Source work that scientists gain $$, prestige and knowledge from being involved in contracts with the government. They are incentivised to follow the norm!
        
        1960s: New Radical Scientists Movement
        
        Vietnam War's escalation suggested that radical activism was the only solution available
        
        March 4th Protests
        
        Not solely restricted to the US, but took place across universities in Britain, France and Japan
        
        Challenging the university's alleged autonomy from political issues
        
        Science Action Coordinating Committee and Union of Concerned Scientists formed
        
        SftP and SESPA
        
        Professional scientists working as activists
        
        To question the underlying assumptions of scientific research by adopting a Marxist view (they are, in this way, related to the 1930s' Leftist scientists in the UK)
        
        Science always served political ends, so they wanted to make sure it was GOOD politics guiding science
        
        Parallel in the UK: British Society for Social Responsibility in Science
        
        See Haraway:
        
        Sure, they adopt far-left positions, but they are different in goals; they didn't want scientists being involved in the state's research unlike what the 1930s scientists wanted
        
        WWII certainly had an impact to emphasise the POWERLESSNESS of the scientist, even if they were involved in state policies
        
        L1 Schmazler and Allen
        
        Documents the far-left ideologies of the SftP scientists, noting that while they were inspired by the 1930s Leftist scientists, they are fundamentally different, because they despised the state-scientist partnership, and looked at RACE and GENDER, rather than CLASS
        
        See the 4 documents analysed; mainly, it questions the capitalist practices of science for ignoring the needs of the common person
        
        Also tries to show how Marxism could inform scientists in their research/work
  - - - Again, we get this consistent theme of scientists being uncomfortable because political activism contradicted the ideals of the disinterested, objective scientist
        
        1944: ESA voted to restrict the committee's ability to advocate policy positions, and so the organisation drew a line between professional science and political advoacy!
  - - - 1958 Baby Tooth Survey
        
        Analysing for the presence of Sr-90, showing that levels of Sr in baby teeth had risen after the nuclear age
        
        Model for citizen science too, as non-scientists were involved!
        
        CNI scientists produced data, increased visibility about atomic testing all for political purposes (expert-produced information for political activism)
        
        1963: Atmospheric Test Ban Treaty signed
  - - - You can rationalise why these strategies are useful
        
        Involving minority scientists give the scientists a touchpoint to more easily access the minority groups that they want data from (awareness of cultural contexts etc)
        
        Having a more equal rs with the indigenous groups generates trust, gives them an easier time getting the data they need
  - - - Questions of WHO/what kind of scientists would likely engage in activism?
- - - - This chapter notes the transformative power of citizen science, but also, the problems associated with promoting citizen science!
        
        And also sort of answers the question: why are women more actively involved in activism?
  - - - Neoliberalism is also linked intimately to this notion of self-care and risk society
        
        Neoliberal policies place the power/control in the hands of profit-driven private institutions
        
        Tap on L12 PEM Wynne: Low risk is when the people in power can be trusted! So, a neoliberal climate makes it more important for citizens to self-care
        
        Wynne's important argument:
        
        Scrutiny CAN (but does not HAVE TO) arise from a lack of trust
        
        Risk is rooted in a social-relational context (or how ppl in society relate to the public institutions in society): The need to respond to risk arises from the behaviour and (lack of) trustworthiness of expert institutions
        
        Latourian view of Risk:
        
        When we actively decide to label something as a 'risk', we are undermining the distinction between humans AND the object
        
        This also means that said object is embedded in social and political relations
  - - - Women as Activists
        
        Noting that gender roles and expectations may have influenced the observation of WHO stands up against these harmful agents
        
        Social roles as mothers
        
        Privileged socio-economic status/background too!
  - - - Being 'Scientists
        
        To help the women and members escape stereotypes about women being too outspoken
        
        To also allow the CRMOs to escape the characterisation of the organisation as a 'terrorist' group (this must be situated within Japan's domestic political context and definition of the 'good' citizen!)
        
        A good citizen in Japan: Self-reliant, collaborative rather than divisive = science was the ideal tool for responsible, good citizenship
      - L2 Kimura
        
        Explores why science, rather than radical politics, was employed by the CRMO
        
        Notes also how neoliberalism carved out a new concept of 'good citizen' in Japan --> The CRMOs used science to be apolitical, docile and to look after their fellow citizens
        
        The CRMOs see their tasks as straightforward, and argue that science makes them apolitical (and so cannot be hijacked by the New Left). Testing defers the agency of being political!
        
        Beneath this image, though, Kimura believes that measuring is a subtle way of pointing out the gaps in the government programme, and so complex meanings must be recognised with the act of testing!
        
        What is important here is to question if Kimura is right to label them 'activists' can be ascribed on these actors if they themselves refuse to be considered activists (because they don't want to be called activists/be seen as political!)
        
        What it means to be an activist? Is it enough for the group to identify as activists? Is that a NECESSARY condition?
        
        'covert activism'? 'implied activism'?
        
        Also Kimura terms neoliberalism an example of Foucault's technology of the self, because neoliberalism encourages individuals to use certain tools/techniques to construct their own social and personal identity
        
        Compare the Kimura and Di Chiro case studies: to show that the meaning/definition of 'activism' is quite malleable, and can be shaped by activists in whatever ways that suits their own political contexts
        
        For the CRMOs, science is utilised to help them maintain neutrality, it helps them convey an image of neutrality (important in their context)
        
        For Teresa Leal, she recognises that what she wants to achieve is very much political --> And so, she uses science to strengthen her political cause
  - - - Challenges
        
        For the Awkesasne community, they distrusted the state and scientists for fear of misuse of their biological samples
        
        What emerged, then, was a new sort of research model to ensure that the community was on equal power relations as the scienitsts
        
        A forum was created to overcome historical inequalities and restore power!
      - L2 Hoover
        
        Demonstrates the creation of a new scientific collaboration between researchers and indigenous groups, community-based participatory research (CBPR)
        
        Shows also that 'citizen' in citizen science is a contested definition, particularly for the Akwesasne, a tribe that doesn't feel like they are Americans or Canadians (their land transverses the 2 countries). Also, environmental citizenship here to protect the land/environment they inhabit
        
        In collaborating with scientists, an entity that they have come to distrust, the Akwesanse tribe demanded equality, and ownership of the data collected. This allowed scientists also to be more ethical, and produce a better research protocol
        
        The Akwesasne case study is interesting because it is the one that really probes the concept of 'citizen'
        
        They are a tribe, an indigenous group. They aren't Americans or Canadians (that's fluid too by nature of where they live)
        
        They have a stronger sense of belonging to the tribe than they do to the government (civic dislocation) --> In using science, they are able to create a 3rd space of sovereignty (and circumvent the state)!
        
        NOTE: There isn't a very strong relation between neoliberalism and the Akwesasne work here, because the pollution had occurred since the 1950s/60s and isn't a product of neoliberal policies
        
        Also, for the Akwesasne tribe, their use of science clearly is one filled with scepticism and questions about the unequal power relations in science --> This provides a bit of nuance in terms of how lay-citizens can perceive science (depending on their background)
        
        Science has been employed by the state to deny citizenship claims for indigenous groups!
        
        In their activism, they were trying to modify the practice of science to accommodate their cultural specificity
      - L4 Hoover (Conclusion)
        
        Environmental contamination and activism in the Mohawk community takes 3 forms: Individual, Social and Political
        
        Noting that this concept of transgressing boundaries is very evident in their activism. The whole reason for this activism is that environmental hazards have transgressed the natural/synthetic boundary. This forces them to transgress the lay-expert boundary.
        
        Also shows the various grassroots movements that the community undertakes to overcome the damages caused by the environmental destruction
  - - - Strategies
        
        Resisting the lay-expert divide by empowering the women in the border towns to recognise their exploitation
        
        'Gossip' to improve the health of the people
        
        Making community members their own WATCHDOGS
        
        Science as a tool of empowerment
      - L2 Di Chiro
        
        Leal recognises very clearly that environmental movements are complex, and intertwine with GENDER issues. But also, that she knows the problem isn't just getting the companies to re-locate (that's just moving the problem elsewhere)
        
        Her strategy, through her Comrades group, was to empower women, blend their experiences with the knowledge of doctors and sicentists
        
        Organising grassroots campaigns to protest against the council, and also using popular epidemiology to force the government's attention
        
        The complexity of activism against globalism, and the need for transnational organisations/networks
        
        Leal believes that science is 'objective', which is why it is a useful and powerful tool to employ (it cannot be ignored)
        
        'the forcing function of knowledge' (a term that Howe uses in describing climate change) --> But could we also use it to describe the activists's actions? They seek to get more data, more research, to enforce/implement rational decisionmaking
- - - - Hessen & Principia
        
        Argued for an externalist analysis on Newton's work, rather than internalist
        
        A transformative moment for Marxist scientists, as it provided a way for them to understand how they could bring together their Marxist leanings and science! --> How they could meaningfully conceive themselves as scientists
    - - 1962 Kuhn: Structure of Scientific Revolutions
        
        While not entirely externalist, it argued for the role of communities in producing knowledge; science isn't simply cumulative, but a product of SOCIAL dynamics (it requires norms to produce anomalies etc.)
        
        Kuhn was writing during the Cold War (MIC)!
        
        A progress for HPS studies, but wasn't focussed on the social relations of science, just promoting the view that science is a social activity --> Other scholars could come in and expand this!
      - High Church and Low Church Divisions
        
        High Church: Viewing STS as a scholarly activity
        
        Low Church: A concept that STS is inherently political, and so ought to be activist-oriented
        
        Low Church: To force science to become more accountable and be concerned with military manipulations of science
        
        Linked closely with neoliberalism and the various movements in the 1960s-70s
        
        STS scholars too were concerned with trying to promote science to benefit the population!
        
        To this end:
        
        Broadening access to S/T
        
        Calling for diversification of the workforce (and showing its benefits) --> PoS
        
        Giving lay citizens tools to challenge authority of experts --> HoS informs citizens of how science has historically been used to this end!
        
        Dissident scientists --> STS can help illuminate the political entanglements of science, empowering scientists too!
        
        This is why critical perspectives on science and scientists matter so much
  - - - L3 Liboiron
        
        Argues that the agency of plastics are deeply impacted/affected by their physical properties (size, density, chemical composition etc.)
        
        Recognises that plastic pollution cannot be framed in a conventional sense of pollution (does not conform to the matter out of place framework, and is not easily solved with threshold theory in chemical mutagens)
        --> Because in plastics, we lack proper/definitive evidence, and there really isn't a simple 'threshold' for harm to marine organisms
        
        So, we must re-define and re-represent the problem of plastic pollution, taking into account SCALE and merge the scientific and cultural aspects together (where the STS scholar comes in)
        
        Liboiron is concerned with how we can combine BOTH the natural and social sciences to make forms of HARM visible, and articulate enough for ACTION
    - - L3 Chen
        
        The controversy is a symbol of globalisation, part of Taiwan's push towards economic prosperity in the late Cold War
        
        Employees believed that the company mistreated them and exposed their dorm water to chemicals, increasing cancer rates
        
        Legal proceedings against the RCA began in 2009, with the problem of scientific causation a key concern
        
        As an STS scholar, Chen notes the importance of scientific work/data in the lawsuit, and also notes the monopoly of the company in acquiring information
        
        For Taiwan, a country's growth which saw many technological catastrophes due to capitalist industrialisation, STS scholars are extremely pertinent in exposing the problems of attributing culpability in these issues, the inherent systemic biases of S/T!
        
        It's probably also related to this notion of the man-nature boundary idea, where STS scholars are careful to challenge the construction of this boundary, and its implications for society too!
        
        These are fundamental issues to study when technological catastrophes occur!
    - - L3 Knowles
        
        Argues that historians of science and technology can provide important tools towards reducing disaster losses in the C21
        
        Historians recognise the 'black box' of technology, and also can show how disasters in technological systems often reveal social stratification in their aftermath
        
        They also can show the political entanglements of trying to deal with these disasters, and how authorities defer responsibility
        
        Finally, by asking WHO is doing the investigation and WHY they want the investigation, we can show how these investigations are merely 'show', rather than solution
        
        To also caution against the view that disasters are inevitable legacies of our time, and we must embrace them because disasters = markers or progress