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Sociocultural Level Of Approach - Coggle Diagram
Sociocultural Level Of Approach
Individual and the group
Social Cognitive Theory
Assumes that humans learn behaviour through observational learning - people learn by watching models and imitating their behaviour
Often, models serve as indirect models -> not trying to influence behaviour -> if they are rewarded/punished for the behaviour = vicarious reinforcement
Learning process:
Attention:
To learn behaviour, the learner must pay attention to model - influenced by attractiveness, authority, desirability of behaviour
Retention:
Observer remembers the observed behaviour to be able to produce the behaviour immediately or later
Motivation:
Learners must want to replicate the observed behaviour - must understand potential outcome - outcome expectancies
Production:
To reproduce, observers must physically and mentally be able to reproduce the behaviour = self-efficacy
Factors affecting motivation:
Consistency:
If the model behaves consistently across many situation then the learner will be more likely to reproduce the behaviour than when the model acts differently in different situation
Identification with model
They will more easily see themselves doing the behaviour and would ,therefore, have higher self efficacy in reproducing the behaviour themselves
Liking the model:
A warm and kind model would invoke more learners to reproduce the behaviour
Self-efficacy:
The learner must have high beliefs in controlling and reproducing the behaviour to do it
Reward/punishment:
When seeing that the model receives a reward for doing the behaviour, the learner will have higher motivation to reproduce it to get the same reward, called vicarious reinforcement and will be less motivated when the model gets a punishment
Triadic reciprocal determinism: the dynamic and reciprocal interaction related to three factors within SCT that determines one's ability to reproduce an observed behaviour
Person: individuals with a set of learned experience
Environment: external social context
Behaviour: responses to stimuli and goals
Bandura et al (1961) bashing bobo experiment
Bandura, Ross and Ross (1963)
Carney and Lavine (2014)
Social Identity Theory
A person has several social selves that corresponds to specific groups' membership
We need to understand who we are and know our value in social contexts so we categorize in terms of our group memberships
Group memberships can become salient = certain part of our identity becomes more important to us and the features that are related to that group become more prominent and can influence our behaviour
Process of Identifying with a group:
Social identification:
Process by which we identify with certain groups and their values
Social Categorisation:
Form of social cognition where we categorise people into ingroups (people having same values and beliefs) and outgroups
Social comparison:
Process where we compare ingroup to outgroup. We usually favour the in-group over outgroup = in-group favoritism (Ethnocentrism) and also help to raise self-esteem
Positive distinctiveness:
Process of making our ingroup appear distinct, different and better in comparison to the outgroup, can even come at a cost to our ingroup
Minimal group paradigm: the minimum condition for social groups and group biases to be formed is simply being a member of a group
Tajfel et al (1971)
Outgroup homogeneity effect: members of an ingroup are more likely to view themselves as distinct individuals and outgroups members as more similar to each other
If we see out group members as more similar to one another = easier to make generalisation and for stereotypes to develop when combined with SIT can explain how negative stereotypes formed to make ingroup feel more superior
Prejudice can be formed
Due to positive distinctiveness and that we want to keep positive self-concept so we identify with a group that is doing well and want our group to do better than the other group
Stereotypes
Generalised way of thinking about a particular group. Also involve generalised social perception of an individual based on their group membership, physical qualities or behaviour.
A form of social cognition - acts as a heuristic
Another way of understanding is social schemas - set of ideas, beliefs and attitudes about groups of individual that helps cognitive processing about the world
serve to reinforce themselves through confirmation bias
Park and Rothbart (1982) Out group homogeneity effect
Hamilton and Gifford (1976) Illusory correlation
Bias in thinking
Tendency to see relationship between variables when there are none
Can explain relationship between minority groups and negative behaviours - we a re biased towards trying to explain rare or undesirable behaviours by attributing it to minority
overestimate the correlation between negative characteristics minority groups members.
If minority group member has negative behaviour - more noticeable and memorable because minority and undesirable act are both uncommon
Effect of stereotype - Stereotype threat
When an individual is in a situation where they feel fearful that they will fulfill a negative stereotype about them
This can lead to spotlight anxiety, where we tend to overestimate how much other people notice about us, that leads to 'vigilant worry' about performance. Even though they don't believe in the stereotype themselves, the anxiety could cause them to internalise the stereotype in the form of a 'self-fulfilling phrophecy' where they will actulaly express that stereotype and it will affect their behaviour.
Steele and Aronson (1995)
Grain of truth hypothesis: the experience with a member from a social group will be generalised to other member of that group. Therefore, stereotypes might have some truth to them
Cultural origins of behaviour and cognition
Cultural Dimensions
How the culture/values of a society affects behaviour
A dimension = trends of behaviour in a culture
Hofstede's research -> Collectivism and individualism
Conformity: where people adapt and change their behaviour to fit with the majority
Normative social influence: person conforms in order to be accepted and belong to a group
Berry (1967)
Collectivism:
Focused on 'we'
Identity identified through relationship with others and belonging to a group
Strong in-group bonds are formed and extended family is important
Competition only between group
Value harmony within group so confrontations are discouraged if they disrupt group harmony
Individualism:
Focused on 'I'
Identity comes from individuality
Loose ties between individuals, only yourself and immediate family is important
Competition between individuals encouraged
Confrontations are OK and can be healthy
Cultural groups
Culture and influence on behaviour and cognition
Culture: patterns of behaviour within a society, can be referring to deep or surface culture
Surface culture: features easily seen as difference within different groups
Deep culture: beliefs, attitude and values of a group
These factors may lead to specific kinds of attitudes, beliefs and behaviour
Cultural influences on individuals attitudes, identity and behaviours
Enculturation
Process of developing an understanding of values, language, and expectations of the culture through interacting with gatekeepers
Gatekeepers: Any medium that controls what material reaches the public between the event and the receiver such as parents, media, culture
Enculturation on behaviour = conformity, obedience and compliance (responding favourable to explicit or implicit request from others)
Enculturation on cognition = delayed gratification
Barry et al (1959)
Connections between economic systems and "child training practices"
Lamm
Greenfield (2006)
Compliance techniques
Factors influencing likelihood of compliance:
Authority, commitment, liking, reciprocity, scarcity, social proof
Reciprocity principle:
The social norms that we should treat others the way they treat us
Door in face technique:
Making a large request initially that is highly likely to be turned down to increase likelihood of a smaller request being accepted
Commitment principle:
When a person make a commitment or a stand, they feel pressure to behave consistently with that commitment
The longer people commit to a goal the harder it will be for them to abandon it
Foot-in-the door techniques
Norms (Social and Cultural S/C)
Cultural Norms:
Enduring Set of rules
Based on socially or culturally shared beliefs, ideas and behaviour
How an individual ought to behave to be accepted within that group
shared by large group of people
Transmitted from through generation
Social norms:
The implcit and explicit rules a group has for the socially acceptable beliefs, behaviour and action of their member
Regulate behaviours within a group
When deviating from S/C norms individual may be punished or might receive positive response
Humans = social animals, need to belong plays strong role in conforming to group norms
Asch (1955)
Acculturation
Process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of contact between two or more different cultural groups
Four acculturation strategies
Assimilation (identify with home culture low but high with new)
People that consider original culture not important and want to only identify and interact mainly with new culture
Separation (high with origin culture but low with new culture)
value their heritage culture and do not want to learn or interact with the new culture
Integration (Bicultural - high with old and new)
want to keep their heritage culture but also learn the new culture
Marginalization (low with origin and new culture)
People who doesn't want to identify with either cultures
Torres et al (2012): acculturative stress
Lueck and Wilson (2010)
Acculturation gaps:
Generational differences in acculturation that can lead to conflict within family children who go to school would be able to acculturate faster and would therefore, might think that their parents won't know the culture and wouldn't go to them for help
Research methods and ethical consideration
Research methods: surveys
Gather data from a large sample
Important when studying culture since culture spans huge groups of people
Difficult to study in lab setting
Allow us to view trends between cultures and draw correlations between certain values and behaviour on large scale
Survey data highly subjective
Cultural values often unconscious, self report might not be accurate
susceptible to researcher bias and ethnocentrism in analysis stage
Correlational data can't argue culture
causes
behaviours
Research methods: Observations
Research method: Lab experiment
Etic approach:
Applies research finding globally, assuming that behaviours are universal
Begins gathering data as soon as they arrive in the field
Plans out research before arriving in the field
Uses standardized tests and theories from their own culture and and applies them to local people
Emic approach:
Develops research question after spending time with the local community
Collects data only after they are familiar with the local culture
Develops tests in consultation with local experts to apply to the community
Theories are generated after spending time within the culture
Applies finding to the local community that is being investigated