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6 Family and Society, This is cumulative (adding up 3 interpersonal…

- - - - Adolescents who have high amounts of negative life events tend to use substances
    - - Add up the no. of stressful life events & link with individuals substance use (cumulative)
      - Lloyd & Turner (2008) traumatic life events across the lifetime (so lifetime accumulation of stress) & risk of alcohol dependence - simply if you've experienced an event, that increases risk of being alcohol dependent - looked at odds ratios - so distal & proximal stresses are independent and cumulative in predicting alcohol dependence
      - HOWEVER, some people are resilient, also these stresses don't explain ethnic differences, and relationships weaken when you control for other stuff
      - Clark et al (1997) looked at 14 & 18 year olds who have alcohol dependence & alcohol abuse diagnosis, and found they more likely to experience traumatic events in early childhood (odds ratio)
        Also found that these individuals who had 3 or more interpersonal traumatic events happen were more likely to have alcohol dependence
      - Another study looked at abuse history - those who experience both physical and sexual abuse increase the risk to use multiple substances
      - Study looked at reasons why victims and non-victims of abuse use substances - victim group have escape reasons, emotional reasons, parental reasons
    - - Those who suffered childhood trauma, physical & sexual abuse are likely to have high rates of substance use
    - - Early stress on alcohol use in rhesus monkeys - raised by mother or peers for first 6 months of life, then access to alcohol in small groups or during social seperation
    - - People who've naturally experienced extreme stress, e.g., soldiers, where a link between PTSD and substance use was found
    - - Neurobiological mechanisms
      - Intense negative affective states e.g., depression
      - Have symptoms of PTSD
      - Feeling shame, guilt, or other negative labbeling by others or themselves, enhance isolation, lack of support
      - Deviant peer group affiliation or parental heavy substance use - increase access to substances