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Chapter 2: The Project Management and Information Technology Context -…
Chapter 2:
The Project Management and Information Technology Context
Projects Cannot Be Run In Isolation
Project managers need to use systems thinking which is taking a holistic view of carrying out projects within the context of the organization
Senior managers must make sure projects
continue to support current business needs
Projects must operate in a broad organizational environment
A Systems View of Project Management
A systems approach emerged in the 1950s to describe a more analytical approach to management and problem solving
Three parts include
Systems philosophy:
an overall model for thinking about things as systems
Systems analysis:
problem-solving approach
Systems management:
address business, technological, and organizational issues before making changes to systems
Three Sphere Model for Systems Management
Organization
Technology
Business
Perspectives on Organizations
Human Resource Frame:
Providing harmony between needs of the organization and needs of people
Political Frame:
Coalitions composed of varied individuals and interest groups. Conflict and power are key issues
Structural Frame:
Roles and responsibilities, coordination and control. Organizational chart help describe this frame
Symbolic Frame:
Symbols and meanings related to events. Culture, language, traditions and image are all part of this frame
Organizational Structures
3 basic organization structures
Functional:
functional managers report to the CEO
Project:
program managers report to the CEO
Matrix:
middle ground between functional and project structures; personnel often report to two or more bosses; structure can be weak, balanced, or strong matrix
Organizational Culture
Definition
It is a set of shared assumptions, values, and behaviors that characterize the functioning of an organization
Many experts believe the
underlying causes
of many companies’ problems are
not
the
structure
or
staff
, but the
culture
Ten Characteristics of Organizational Culture
*Project work is most successful in an organizational culture where these items are strong/high and other items are balanced.
Member identity*
Group emphasis*
People focus
Unit integration*
Control
Risk tolerance*
Reward criteria*
Conflict tolerance*
Means-ends orientation
Open-systems focus*
Stakeholder Management
Project managers must take
time to identify, understand, and manage relationships
with
all project stakeholders
Using the
four frames of organizations
can help meet stakeholder needs and expectations
Senior executives/top management are
very important stakeholders
Media Snapshot
The media have often reported on mismanaged IT projects. A classic example and popular case study is
Classic example
The baggage handling system at Denver International Airport (DIA).
The system was supposed to reduce flight delays, shorten waiting times at luggage carousels, and save money, but instead it caused huge problems
One important reason for this famous project disaster was the failure to recognize the project’s complexity.
The Importance of Top Management Commitment
A very important factor in helping project managers successfully lead projects is
the level of commitment
and
support they receive from top management
Without
top management commitment
, many projects will fail.
Some projects have a
senior manager
called
a champion
who acts as a
key proponent
for a project.
People in top management positions are
key stakeholders
in projects
How Top Management Can Help Project Managers
Providing adequate resources
Approving unique project needs in a timely manner
Getting cooperation from other parts of the organization
Mentoring and coaching on leadership issues
Best Practice
IT governance
addresses the
authority
and
control
for
key
IT activities in organizations, including IT infrastructure, IT use, and project management
A lack of IT governance can
be dangerous
As evidenced by three well-publicized IT project failures in Australia (Sydney Water’s customer relationship management system, the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology’s academic management system, and One.Tel’s billing system)
Need for Organizational Commitment to Information Technology (IT)
If the organization has a
negative attitude
toward IT, it will be
difficult
for an IT project to
succeed
Having a
Chief Information Officer (CIO)
at a
high level
in the organization helps IT projects
Assigning
non-IT people
to IT projects also
encourage more commitment
Need for Organizational Standards
Standards and guidelines help
project managers
be more effective
Senior management can encourage
the use of
standard forms
and
software
for project management
the development and use of guidelines
for writing project plans or providing
status information
the creation
of a project management office or center of excellence
Project Phases and the Project Life Cycle
A project life cycle
is a collection of project phases that defines
what work will be performed in each phase
what deliverables will be produced and when
who is involved in each phase, and
how management will control and approve work produced in each phase
A
deliverable
is a product or service produced or provided as part of a project
Project Phases
In middle phase
the certainty of completing a project improves
more resources are needed
The final phase of a project life cycle focuses on
ensuring that project requirements were met
the sponsor approves completion of the project
In early phases
resource needs are usually lowest
the level of uncertainty (risk) is highest
project stakeholders have the greatest opportunity to influence the project
Product Life Cycles
Products
also have life cycles
The Systems Development Life Cycle
(SDLC) is a framework for describing the phases involved in developing and maintaining information systems
Systems development projects
can follow
Predictive life cycle:
the scope of the project can be
clearly articulated
,
the schedule
and
cost
can be
predicted
Adaptive Software Development (ASD) life cycle:
requirements
cannot be clearly
expressed, projects are mission
driven and component
based, using
time-based cycles to meet target dates
Predictive Life Cycle Models
Waterfall model:
has well-defined, linear stages of systems development and support
Spiral model:
shows that software is developed using an iterative or spiral approach rather than a linear approach
Incremental build model:
provides for progressive development of operational software
Prototyping model:
used for developing prototypes to clarify user requirements
Rapid Application Development (RAD) model:
used to produce systems quickly without sacrificing quality
Agile Software Development
Agile software development has become
popular
to describe
new approaches
that
focus on close collaboration
between programming teams and business experts
The Importance of Project Phases and Management Reviews
A project should
successfully pass
through each of the project phases in order to continue on to the next
Management reviews, also called
phase exits
or
kill points
, should occur after each phase
to evaluate the project’s progress
, likely success, and
continued compatibility
with organizational goals
The Context of IT Projects
IT projects
can be
very diverse
in terms of size, complexity, products produced, application area, and resource requirements
IT project
team members
often
have diverse backgrounds and skill sets
IT projects use
diverse technologies
that
change rapidly
. Even within one technology area, people must be highly specialized
Recent Trends Affecting IT Project Management
Globalization
Offshoring:
Offshoring is sometimes used to describe outsourcing from another country
Virtual teams:
A virtual team is a group of individuals who work across time and space using communication technologies
Agile project management
Outsourcing:
Outsourcing is when an organization acquires goods and/or sources from an outside source.