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Chemistry - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Sigma Bond
        
        Stronger bonds between two nuclei with direct overlap
      - Pi Bond
        
        Weaker bonds between nuclei with one or two overlapping lobes
      - Model to describe bonds between atoms
      - Relates to Hydrocarbon diagrams in which double bonds are always kinked since they need an overlapping lobe in order to be formed bending the bond or a triple bond requiring two lobes to be connected straightening out the bond while single bonds are just a straight sigma bond that has freedom to move around
    - - s + p = sp hybrid Linear molecule
      - s + 2p = sp^2 hybrid Trigonal planar
      - s + 2p = sp^3 Tetrahedral
      - Method of defining shape of atomic orbitals that combine to form molecular orbitals
  - - - A = The central atom
      - X= atoms bonded
      - E = lone pairs of electrons
  - - - s orbital (2 electrons)
      - p orbital (6 electrons)
      - d orbital (10 electrons)
      - f orbital (14 electrons)
      - Visual description of the orbitals and probable distributions of electrons
    - - Diagram rules/guide
        
        Aufbau Principle: Electrons added to lowest energy orbital
        
        Maximum of 2 electrons per orbital
        
        Hund's Rule: Because of electron repulsion all orbitals need 1 electron before adding the second
        
        Pauli Exclusion Principle: Of the 2 electrons in an orbital both need to be spinning in opposite directions (up or down)
      - Diagram example
  - - - The attraction of certain materials to external magnetic fields and induce magnetic fields aligning electrons towards the source
    - - Materials that align electrons in the opposite or perpendicular direction to an externally applied magnetic field
    - - Strong magnetism of certain materials that maintain their electron alignment after having their domain aligned when an external magnetic field is removed
  - - - Determined that electrons floated in shells around the nucleus
    - - Comprised of 4 elements: Fire, Earth, Air and Water
      - Matter was divided into small pieces until a limit was reached
    - - Defined a few elements and presumed the world was made of billiard ball like elements put together
    - - Identification of electrons via CRT
      - concluded that atoms were formed of positively charged "pudding" with floating electrons within them
    - - concluded the existence of a nucleus within an atom
      - Atom nucleus contained protons and neutrons
  - - - Quantifies electrostatic attraction between two charged particles
      - Used to calculate voltage
  - - - Molecules with a ΔE of .5<x<1.7
      - Medium bond strength
      - High mp/bp
    - - Molecules with a ΔE < 1.7
      - Strong bond strength
      - Very high mp/bp
      - Mostly soluble
      - Conductive when aqueous
      - Non conductive in solid state
    - - Molecules with a ΔE < .4
      - Weak bonds
      - Low mb/bp
    - - Connected in a lattice structure
      - Very strong bonds
      - Highest mp/bp
      - Very hard but brittle
      - Mostly non conductive
    - - Good conductors
      - High mp/bp
      - Shiny, malleable, ductile
    - - Very low mp/bp
      - Non conductive
      - Single atom
  - - - London
        
        Molecules in close proximity forming instantaneous dipoles
      - Hydrogen
        
        Hydrogen atoms bonding with Fluorine, Oxygen or Nitrogen to form a very strong bond
      - Dipole-Dipole
        
        The positive end of one molecule being attracted to the negative end of another
    - - Covalent
      - Ionic
      - Metalic
- - - - Alkane
        
        Chain of only single bonds
      - Alkene
        
        One or more double bonds
        
        Cis/Trans Isomers
        
        Cis: Larger group on the same side of double bond
        
        Trans: Larger groups on opposite sides of the double bond
      - Alkyne
        
        Chain of one or more triple bonds
      - Cyclic
        
        Alkane or Alkene that forms a ring structure
      - Relates to bonding theory where alkenes and alkynes have pi bonds that force them either to kink or straighten out, since alkanes only have sigma bonds they are free to bend as need be
    - - Cyclic hydrocarbons with unique properties containing benzene
      - Benzene
    - - Same compound drawn in different ways
      - Cis/Trans Isomers
  - - - Aldehydes
      - Ketones
      - Alcohols
      - Carboxylic Acid
    - - Esters
      - Amides
      - Ethers
      - Amines
  - - - Markovnikov's rule
        
        The rich get richer, the carbon with the most hydrogens gets more hydrogens and the carbon with the least gets the hydroxide
  - - - Intermolecular Forces: Forces between molecules (Weak)
      - Intramolecular forces: Forces within a molecule (Strong)
      - Boiling point determined by bond strength
  - - - low molar mass molecule that can bond together with other monomers to form a polymer
    - - Involves one or two monomers containing other functional groups
      - Creates water
        
        Neutralization of Carboxylic Acid with Amides
      - Includes repeating ester or amide group
    - - Only involves alkene monomer creating a long alkene chain
- - - - Types of Systems
        
        Closed system: Energy can move in and out but matter cannot
        
        Isolated system: Both energy and matter cannot move in or out of the system
        
        Open system: Matter and energy can flow in and out
      - Chemical Systems
      - Surroundings: matter around system that absorbs or releases energy from/to the system
    - - First law: energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system
      - Second law: When two objects are in contact the warmer object transfers energy to the colder object until they reach thermal equilibrium
    - - Endothermic: Heat Absorbed
      - Exothermic: Heat Released
  - - - Zero-Order Reactants: Reactants that do not affect the rate of the reaction
      - Single Step Reactions: direct correlation between the reactant and the product, 1:1 reactant to product ratio (determined by the coefficient of the reactant)
      - Multistep reactions
        
        Many reactions occur as steps towards a final reaction
        
        The slowest step in a mechanism is the rate determining step
        
        A reaction intermediate is a substance that appears in a step but not in the net reaction
      - Molecularity
        
        Number of particles involved in a reaction/step
        
        Unimolecular: A -> products
        
        Bimolecular: 2A -> products or A + B -> products
        
        Termolecular 3A -> products or 2A + B -> products (rare)
        
        Higher than third order is uncommon since requirements for reaction are unlikely to be met
      - Order of reaction determined by rate law (a+b+c)
- - - - Less GFE means spontaneous reaction
      - ΔG= ΔH- TΔS
        
        G = GFE
        
        H = enthalpy change
        
        T = Temperature (K)
        
        S = Entropy
    - - A reaction in the state of equilibrium will shift to a favorable side in order to undo a change made upon it
    - - Enthalpy
        
        Favors exothermic side of reaction
        
        Refers to gain or loss of energy
      - Entropy
        
        Favors the more random side of reaction
        
        Refers to amount of disorder
      - If both Enthalpy and Entropy needs are met, reaction speed is based on temperature and pressure
        
        Higher temperature means more energy, higher pressure means more chances/attempts at a properly aligned reaction
    - - Kb
        
        Weak base dissociation constant
      - Ksp
        
        Dissolving a solid into an aqueous solution
      - Ka
        
        Weak Acid dissociation constant
      - No constant for strong acids and bases since they dissociate entirely
    - - Substance added to a reaction to speed up the time of reaction
  - - - Indicators
        
        Want to use indicators with the most drastic color change
        
        Want to use indicator that starts it's color change close to desired pH level, preferably above with a range of 1.0pH tolerance
      - pH = -log[H concentration]
      - pOH = -log[OH concentration]
      - 14 = pH + pOH
    - - Brønsted-Lowry
        
        Acids: Proton donors
        
        Bases: Proton Acceptor
      - Lewis
        
        Acid: Electron Acceptor
        
        Base: Electron Donor
        
        Similar to redox reactions with loss and gain of electrons
      - Arrhenius Theory
        
        Dissociation in water
        
        Acids dissociate to form H+ ions
        
        Bases dissociate to form OH- ions
      - Neutralization of Acid creating water occurs in condensation polymer
    - - Buffer
        
        Solution of weak acid and conjugate base
        
        Used to prevent large changes in pH when strong bases or acids are added
      - Equivalence point
        
        Point where enough titrant has been added to neutralize the solution
  - - - Rate of reaction used to determine equilibrium
- - - - Gain of electrons means substance was reduced
      - Lewis Acid (gain electrons)
    - - Loss of electrons means substance was oxidized
      - Lewis Base (lose electrons)
    - - Similar to Hess' law, splitting up reaction using reduction potentials chart
  - - - Anode and cathode are put together in the same solution
      - Electroplating
        
        Use of current to deposit metals onto a an object used as a cathode from an aqueous solution of metallic ions
    - - AKA galvanic or voltaic
      - Wires connecting two electrodes
      - Salt bridge forming a porous barrier between cells
      - Formed with two half cells
        
        Container
        
        Substance in elemental form or inert electrode
        
        Aqueous solution of substance in ionic form
      - V = E/Q
        
        V = voltage
        
        E = energy (joules)
        
        Q = charge (coulombs
        
        Connected to periodic trends in measurement of atom charge
      - Anode with oxidation, Cathode with reduction