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ap bio brain dump - Coggle Diagram

- - - - prophase
      - prometaphase
      - metaphase
      - anaphase
        
        chromosomes seperate
        
        each side now has the same amount of chromosomes as the parent cell
        
        micro tubular subunits are removed from spindle in order to for chromatids to split
      - telophase
        
        chromosomes move farther towards the pole in preparation for cytokinesis
  - - - same as mitosis, no second dna replication
- - - - more males affected than females
      - affected father has affected daughter
    - - unaffected parents have affected child
      - not always true - there will be a lot of carriers
- - - - when a molecule (other than the substrate) binds to the enzyme somewhere other than the active site in order to change the shape of the active site
    - - end product of a chain of reaction inhibits the first enzyme through the allosteric site
    - - two molecules fight to bind with the active site
- - - - phospholipid bilayer
        
        hydrophilic heads
        
        hydrophobic tails
      - transmembrane proteins
        
        glycoproteins
        
        cell recognition/identification
        
        channels
        
        transport in and out of cell
        
        active transport
        
        uses atp to move substances across their conc. gradient
        
        co transport
        
        facilitated diffusion
        
        using a channel to diffusion w/ conc. gradient
      - endocytosis
        
        phagocytosis
        
        cell eating
        
        pinocytosis
        
        cell drinking
        
        taking in material
        
        plasma membrane forms a vesicle to take in material
      - exocytosis
        
        transporting material out of cell
        
        vesicle fuses with membrane
      - diffusion
        
        osmosis
        
        diffusion of water
        
        uses aquaporins
        
        moves from low solute concentration to high solute concentration
        
        water moves from high water potential to low water potential
        
        passage of material across a membrane from high to low concentration
        
        hypertonic
        
        a solution w/ a higher solute conc.
        
        hypotonic
        
        a solution w/ a lower solute conc.
        
        isotonic
        
        a solution w/ the same solute conc.
    - - ER
        
        rough er
        
        covered in ribosomes to synthesize proteins
        
        only synthesizes proteins that are being transported out of cell
        
        smooth er
        
        receives material from the nucleus
      - golgi apparatus
        
        modifies, packages and tags proteins
        
        adds sugar chains to turn them into glycoproteins
        
        cis face
        
        material enters from er w/ help of a vesicle
        
        trans face
        
        material leaves golgi w/ helps of a vesicle
        
        flattened stacks called cisternae
      - lysosomes
        
        packed w/ digestive enzymes
        
        helps recycle old cell material/organelles
        
        breaks material into organic compounds that can be reused
        
        helps w/ apoptosis
      - vesicles
        
        aids w/ transport or material around a cell
    - - site of oxidative phosphorylation in cell resp.
      - mitochondrial matrix
      - double membrane
      - has its own dna
      - evidence of endosymbiosis
    - - made of cyotosol and other organelles
    - - produce proteins for inside the cell
    - - nuclear membrane
      - nucleoid
        
        contains genetic info
      - pores
        
        small holes in the nuclear membrane that allow for material to pass such as rna
    - - rigid structure that give plant cells its shape
      - plasmolysis
        
        when too much water leaves a plant cell that the cell shrinks to the point of no return
        
        turgor pressure
        
        the pressure needed for the membrane to press up to the cell wall in order to maintain shape
    - - hairs on the surface that aid w/ movement
      - hairs made of 9+2 microtubule arrangements
    - - double membrane
      - evidence of endosymbiosis
      - stroma
        
        semi-fluid substance
      - thylakoids
        
        where photosynthesis takes place
  - - - microtubule 9+2 arrangements
    - - contains genetic material
- - - - anaerobic
        
        fermentation
        
        lactic acid
        
        NADH is oxidized and pyruvate turns to lactic acid
        
        ethanol
        
        co2 released
        
        pyruvate turns to acetaldehyde
        
        NADH --> NAD+ and ethanol is formed
        
        sulfate respiration
        
        sulfur is final e- acceptor
        
        not in humans
        
        co2 respiration
        
        co2 is final e- acceptor
        
        not in humans
        
        starts w/ glycolysis
        
        apart from glycolysis, NO ATP PRODUCTION
      - aerobic
        
        oxygen is the final e- acceptor
        
        pyruvate oxidation
        
        mitochondrial matrix
        
        2 pyruvate + 2CoA --> 2 acetyl-CoA
        
        2NAD+ --> 2NADH
        
        2CO2 is released
        
        krebs cycle
        
        mitochondrial matrix
        
        acetyl-CoAs are completely broken down
        
        CoAs are removed and reused
        
        4CO2 released
        
        6NAD+ --> 6NADH
        
        2ATP formed
        
        2FAD+ --> 2FADH
        
        ETC
        
        mitochondrial membrane
        
        bulk of atp is made here
        
        NADH passes electrons through cytochrome series
        
        cytochrome series are proton pumps that pump a proton everytime an electrons passes
        
        h+ gradient across membrane forms which powers atp synthase to phosphorylate adp to make atp
        
        electons + oxygen + hydrogen = water which is released as waste
        
        FADH2 passes electrons to second cytochrome instead of first
        
        10 NADH --> 10NAD+
        
        34ATP made
        
        6 O2 used and 6 H2O made
        
        2FADH2 --> 2FAD+
        
        order: glycolysis, pyruvate ox., krebs, etc
      - happens in the cytoplasm
      - glucose --> 2 pyruvate
      - 2NAD+ --> 2NADH
      - 2 ATP used in the beginning, 4 ATP gained --> 2ATP net gain
  - - - light independent reactions
        
        calvin cycle
        
        fixing co2 into rubp in order to make rubisco, then pgal, then g3p
        
        atp and nadph used to turn pgal into g3p
        
        6g3p are created per 3co2, 1 is used to make glucose and 5 are used to regenerate rubp
      - light dependent reactions
        
        non-cyclic photophosphorylation
        
        electrons don't return to photosystems
        
        works similar to etc in mitochondria
        
        photosystems capture light energy in order to excite electrons
        
        electrons come from the breaking down of water
        
        atp and nadph is made
        
        cyclic photophosphorylation
        
        electrons move in a circle, returns to ps 1
        
        no water or oxygen involved
        
        only atp is synthesized
        
        occurs in low light or low co2 conditions
        
        only photosystem 1 is involved
    - - occurs in mesophyll and bundle sheath cells
      - mesophyll part
        
        creation of pep which releases co2 which is used in calvin cycle
        
        pep is regenerated (pep + co2 = a bunch of steps + release of co2 and regeneration of pep
        
        atp is generated
      - bundle sheath part
        
        the calvin cycle
        
        b/c of deposited co2 from pep regeneration, higher conc. of co2 in cell
        
        co2 cant cross membrane of b-s cell
    - - basically c4 photosynthesis except c4 part occurs at night and calvin cycle occurs in day