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Empirical Methods & Experiment Design - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Steps
        
        Form a hypothesis
        tentative answer or explanation
        
        Use hypothesis for a testable prediction
        
        Evaluate prediction by
        systematic planned observations
        
        Use observations to support, refute,
        refine original hypothesis
        
        Observe behavior or phenomena
      - Process of Scientific Inquiry
        
        observation
        
        hypothesis
        
        prediction
        
        planned observation
        
        new hypothesis
        
        prediction
        ...
    - - Inductive
        increase
        small set of observations as basis for a general statement about a larger set of possible observations
      - Deductive
        decrease
        a general statement as the basis for a conclusion about specific examples
    - - Hypothesis
        a statement that describes or explains
        a relationship between variables
        → can lead to several observable/measurable predictions
      - Variables
        characteristics or conditions that change or have
        different values for different individuals
      - Theory
        set of statements about the mechanisms underlying a particular behavior. Theories help organize and unify different observations of the behavior and its relationship with other variables.
        A good theory generates predictions about the behavior
    - - Qualitative Research
        
        narrative reports
      - Quantitative research
        
        statistical analysis
      - Steps in research Process
        
        1. Find research idea
        
        select general topic
        
        review literature in area
        
        identify relevant variables
        
        find unanswered questions
        
        Mantra
        
        Interest
        
        broad background information
        
        open mind towards more specific topics
        
        focus on specific questions
        one step at a time
        
        Sources for Ideas
        
        Personal interests & curiosities
        
        Casual Observation
        
        Reports of others observations
        
        informal sources
        
        trustworthy sources
        
        Practical Problems / questions
        
        Applied Research intends to answer practical questions
        
        Basic research/fundamental research intends to answer theoretical questions or gather knowledge simply for its own sake
        
        Behavioral Theories
        
        checking whether a theory is true in a certain setting
        
        checking for opposing theories
        
        Background Literatures
        
        Primary Sources
        firsthand reports of observations / research results written by the individual who actually conducted the research and made the observation
        
        Secondary Sources
        description / summary of another persons work.
        written by someone who did not participate in research/observations being discussed
        
        Preparing Literature Search
        
        find keywords:
        
        textbook headings/subheadings
        
        note subject keywords
        
        Author names
        
        Online Database
        
        summaries
        
        abstracts
        
        is a brief summary of the publication usually about 200 words
        
        full-text
        
        Weed Out irrelevant material
        
        title
        
        abstract
        
        references from found articles
        
        Define Research Idea
        
        explicit statements in articles regarding
        
        unanswered questions
        
        limitations of studies
        
        conflicting results
        
        Critical Reading
        
        Components of an Article
        
        Introduction
        
        literature review
        
        hypothesis or purpose for study
        
        specific prediction from hypothesis
        
        Method
        
        participants
        
        Procedure
        
        Results
        
        Statistics
        
        Discussion
        
        results on hypothesis
        
        justified conclusions
        
        alternative explanations
        
        applications
        
        limits to generalization
        
        References
        
        list of items cited
        
        Issues in every step of an article
        
        2. Form hypothesis
        
        Characteristics
        
        Logical
        
        logical conclusion of logical argument
        
        rational method
        
        Testable
        
        a testable hypothesis is one for which all variables, events and individuals can be defined and observed
        
        Refutable
        
        a refutable hypothesis is one that can be demonstrated to be false. That is, it is possible fot the outcome to be different from the prediction
        
        Positive
        
        must make a positive statement about the existence of something
        
        a hypothesis that denies existence cannot be tested in a research study -> no good foundation of research
        
        3. Determine how to define
        & measure variables
        Transfer of hypothesis into an empirical testable form
        
        Variables
        characteristics or conditions that change or have
        different values for different individuals
        
        abstract entities
        
        different options for measurement
        
        Types of variables
        
        well-defined
        
        easily observed
        
        easily measured
        
        abstract
        
        intangible
        → complicated measurements
        
        Realtionships
        
        one-to-one
        
        Constructs and Operational Definitions
        
        Constructs
        hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a theory
        External Stimulus -> Construct -> External Behavior
        Reward -> Motivation -> Performance
        
        Operational Definitions
        methods of defining and measuring constructs
        
        intelligence can be operationally defined as a score on an IQ test
        
        "hunger" can be operationally defined as the number of hours of food deprivation
        
        Limitations
        
        operational definitions is not the same as the construct itself
        
        concerns on quality of operational definitions and measurements produced
        
        could leave out of important components of a construct
        
        include extra components that are not part of the construct being measured
        
        Criteria for Measurements
        
        Reliability & Validity
        No Reliability -> No Validity
        Validity -> Reliability
        Consistency of measurement is no guarantee of validity
        (broken stopwatch measures reliable but not valid)
        Reliability -/-> Validity
        It is not necessary for a measurement to be valid for it to be reliable
        No Validity -/-> Reliability
        
        Reliability
        is the measurement of the procedure stable. If the same individuals are measured under the same conditions, a reliable measurement produces (nearly identical) identical measurements
        measured score = True score + Error
        
        Errors
        
        3 more items...
        
        Types of Reliability
        
        3 more items...
        
        Validity
        Does the procedure measure what it claims to measure?
        the validity of a measurement procedure is the degree to which the measurement process measures the variable that it claims to measure
        Establish Validity:
        
        measurement procedure must accurately capture the variable that it is supposed to measure
        
        Common Definitions of Validity
        
        4 more items...
        
        Measured by
        Consistency of relationship of two sets of measurements
        Correlations
        
        positive relationship
        
        measurements change together in same direction
        
        negative relationship
        
        measurements change in opposite directions
        
        Consistent positive relationship = correlation near +1
        
        consistent negative relationship = correlation near -1
        
        Inconsistent relationship = correlation near zero
        
        Process of Measurement
        components:
        
        set of categories
        
        procedure to assign individuals to categories
        
        Scales of Measurement
        distinction between ordinal & interval is not always clear
        
        Nominal Scale
        REVEALS WHETHER DIFFERENCES EXIST
        differences in a series of ranks
        represent qualitative (not quantitative) differences in the variable measured
        
        no direction of difference is usable
        
        Ordinal Scale
        INDICATE DIRECTION OF DIFFERNECE
        series of equal intervals with true zero value
        different names for categories, organized sequentially
        
        series of ranks (first, second, third / S,M,L,XL, upper, middle, lower class)
        
        directional relationship between categories
        → not compatible with arithmetic / appropriate statistical analysis
        
        Interval and ratio Scale
        DETERMINES DIRECTION & MAGNITUDE OF DIFFERENCE
        qualitative differences (hound, cat, mouse)
        Organized sequentially with all categories with the same size. Ratio scales have a determined point for zero which is a meaningful point representing none
        → each "step" is the same size
        ratio:
        
        seconds
        
        pounds
        
        interval
        
        Fahrenheit
        
        interval-scores can also be set in relationship to others making them ratio-scores
        
        basic arithmetic
        
        suitable for statistical analysis
        => allow hypothesis testing
        
        Modalities of Measurements
        Issues:
        
        Desynchrony: lack of agreement between two measures
        
        Limit problems:
        
        combine measures into a single scores / individually
        
        Self-Report Measures
        ask direct questions to study behavior
        +
        direct measures
        -
        validity is dubious
        
        biased
        
        honesty
        
        Physiological Measures
        based on manifestations of underlying construct
        +
        objective measures
        -
        
        expensive equipment
        
        may not provide valid measurement of C (different reasons for outcome might be possible)
        
        Behavioral Measures
        based on apparent behaviors that can be observed and measured
        +
        provide researchers with cast number of options (select behavior that fits best)
        -
        behaviors may be only temporary or situational indicators of an underlying construct
        
        Problems
        
        Range Effects
        a measurement that is not sensitive enough to detect a difference
        
        Ceiling Effect
        clustering of scores at the high end of the scale
        
        Floor Effect
        clustering of scores at the low end of the scale
        
        Artifact
        non-natural feature accidentally introduced into something being observed
        
        Experimenter Bias
        → invalid & unreliable results
        Pygmalion-Effekt
        
        Limiting Experimenter Bias
        
        standardize / automate experiment (limit personal contact between experimenter & participant)
        
        single-blind: if the researcher does not know the predicted outcome / double-blind: if both the researcher and the participants are unaware of the predicted outcome
        
        Demand Characteristics
        cues that
        
        suggest to participants what the purpose and hypothesis is
        
        influence participants to respond / behave in a certain way
        
        Participant Reactivity
        occurs when participants modify their natural behavior in response to the fact that they are participating in a research study or the knowledge that they are being measured
        
        Field Studies /covert field study → +
        Laboratory studies → -
        
        Role Adoption
        
        good subject role
        
        negativistic subject role
        
        apprehensive subject role
        
        faithful subject role
        
        4. + 5. Participants
        
        identify participants for study
        
        decide how to select
        
        plan ethical treatment
        
        Ethics in Research
        research ethics concerns the responsibility of researchers to be honest and respectful to all individuals who are affected by their research studies or the reports of the studies' results
        // no issue of morality
        
        What to be concerned about
        
        what measurement techniques may be used
        
        hot to select participants
        
        which research strategies to use
        
        which research design to use
        
        How to carry out the study
        
        How to analyse the data
        How to report the data
        
        Basic Principles
        
        Welfare & Dignity of Individuals
        
        Accuracy & honesty of research
        
        by
        
        accuracy
        
        honesty
        
        validity
        
        Major Ethical Issues
        
        No Harm
        no comparison should be done when one treatment is considered inferior to the other treatment
        
        Informed Consent
        
        Consent form
        
        requires the investigator to provide all available information about a study so that an individual can make a
        rational, informed decision to participate in the study (before beginning the study).
        
        Debriefing
        
        explanation what the study was really about
        
        counteracting or minimizing negative effects
        
        explaining nature of and justification for deception
        
        answering questions the participant has
        
        Deception
        purposefully withholding information / misleading participants with regard to information about a study
        
        active
        
        misinformation of the prticipants
        
        passive
        
        withholding information intentionally
        
        Confidentiality
        Ensured through anonymity
        
        attitudes & opinions
        
        measures of performance
        
        demographic characteristics
        
        Fraud
        explicit effort of a researcher to fasify or misinterpret data
        
        prevent fraud
        
        Replication
        replication of research using the same procedure used in the original. Either the replication supports the original study by duplicating the original results or it casts doubt on the original study demonstrating that the original study is not easily repeated
        
        Plagiarism
        unethical representation o someone else's ideas or work as one's work
        
        Sampling
        goal: generalize from sample to larger population
        
        Population
        entire set of individuals of interest to a researcher. Although the entire population usually does not participate in a research study, the results from the study are generalized to the entire population
        school-children, adolescents interest in gaming
        == all individuals of interest
        
        Accessible Population
        portion of target population consisting of individuals who are accessible to be recruited
        
        Sample
        set of individuals selected from a population and usually is interpreted to represent the population in a research study
        share the same defining characteristics with the population
        
        Representativeness
        extent to which the characteristics of the sample accurately reflect characteristics of population
        the more representative the better to generalize
        
        accessible population = target population?
        
        Threats
        
        Bias
        biased sample = sample with different characteristics from those of the population
        Selection bias / sampling bias = occurs when participants are selected in a manner that increases the probability of obtaining a biased sample
        
        Sample Size
        Law of large number = the larger, the higher the probability of representation
        -> 25-30 individuals for each group/treatment condition
        
        Sampling Techniques
        
        Probability Sampling
        
        entire population is known
        
        each individual on population has a specifiable probability of selection
        
        sampling occurs by a random process
        
        requires knowledge on whole population
        
        Random Process
        the outcome must be unpredictable each time / process must guarantee that each o the possible outcomes is equally likely to occur
        
        Probability Sampling Methods
        
        6 more items...
        
        Nonprobability sampling
        population is not completely known, individual probabilities cannot be known and the sampling method is based on factors such as commonsense or ease, with an effort to maintain representativeness and avoid bias
        
        odds of selecting a particular individual are unknown
        
        → greater risk of biased samples
        
        Convenience Sampling
        individual participants are obtained by selecting those who are available and willing
        +
        easy method
        
        interested participants are reliable
        
        less expensive
        
        -
        weak form of sampling
        
        no attempt to know the population
        
        no attempt to randomize process
        
        → biased
        
        Quota Sampling
        subgroups are identified to be included
        quotas are established for individuals to be selected through convenience from each subgroup
        +
        
        control over composition of convenience sample
        
        -
        
        biased sample (same subgroup → same socio-economic background → biased)
        
        convenience sample
        
        5. select research strategy
        
        Experimental Strategy
        
        Research Strategy
        is a general approach to research determined by the kind of question that the research study hopes to answer
        
        Category 1
        Descriptive Research
        
        Descriptive Research
        Category 1
        
        not concerned with relationships between variables
        
        obtains a snapshot
        
        data in averages/percentages
        
        Category 2
        Correlational Research
        
        Correlational Research
        Category 2
        
        describes relationship, not causation
        
        measures multiple variables per individual
        
        one group of participants -> measures two variables for each individual
        
        Scatter Plot
        
        each individual is representad by a point
        
        Relationships between Variables
        
        Linear
        
        Curvilinear
        
        Positive
        
        Negative
        
        Category 3
        Comparing Two or More Sets of Scores
        analysis:
        comparing groups of scores
        
        t test
        
        chi-square
        
        variance analysis
        
        Quasi-Experimental Research
        produces a cause-and-effect explanation
        used for cases where you cannot assign groups
        
        can never produce an unambiguous explanation
        
        Ex.: does treatment vs. no treatment cause a reduction in smoking?
        
        -
        no random distribution of participants → no experimental study
        
        Non-Experimental Research
        
        demonstrates a relationship between variables
        
        causation (explanation)
        
        compares two groups of scores (measures only one variable for each individual) / two groups OR two different times
        -
        no random assignment → no experimental study
        
        no control group / multiple measures → no experimental study/ quasi experiment
        
        Experimental Research
        
        cause-and-effect relationship
        
        Ex.: Are increases in exercise responsible for causing decreases in cholesterol level?
        
        Research Design
        Decisions on
        
        group versus individual
        
        within group or between groups
        
        same individuals versus different individuals
        
        number of variables to be included
        
        Research Procedure
        research procedure is an exact step-by-step description of a specific research study
        
        exact step-by-step description of a specific research study
        
        Determination of
        
        how the variables are to be manipulated, regulated & measured
        
        how many individuals will be involved
        
        how the individual participants will proceed through the course of the study
        
        6. select a research design
        SESSION 8+9
        
        decide on specific methods and procedures
        
        ⇒ basis for different designs of studies
        
        7. conduct the study
        SESSION 14
        
        decisions on execution of study
        
        8. evaluate the data
        statistic course
        
        9. report the results
        SESSION 15
        
        10. refine of reformulate
        your research idea
        
        ... repeat from step 2