In this history, natural has a range of meanings, the most general being that, whereas child language acquisition is natural, adult SLA is not.

The best-known version of NP (Csibra and Gergely, 2009). 3 claims:

1. Humans are evolutionarily designed to ［ give/respond to ostensive communicative cues］—signals indicating that they are being addressed/ communicated with. 明显的，明示的交流提示
   
   

2.Humans are evolutionarily designed to ［ present/expect referential information］. 表达指示信息（is about something.）

3. Humans are evolutionarily designed to give/receive new, generalizable information. 知识的可转移性

Adapt in 4 ways:

1. ➡️ NP is lifelong.

   
   

   (1) embodied tool: gestures, facial expressions, head/body movement, and interactional synchrony

   
   

   (2) linguistic tool: intonation, repetition, repair, and oral narrative

   
   

   (3) situation-structuring tools: activity types, participation structures, and humor

   
   

2. 婴儿的理性模仿（动作是有意义的才会模仿）➡️ 二语学习者 would function to facilitate learning in others. ... Thus, it characterizes teaching as an adaptation to facilitate learning in others.

   
   

3. ➡️ focus on teaching.

Four types of teaching behavior:

(1)Social tolerance = adults’ acceptance of novices’ interference in daily activities, thus enabling involvement without competence, or legitimate peripheral participation (Lave & Wenger, 1991).
社会宽容是成年人接受新手对日常活动的干预，从而使他们能够在没有能力的情况下参与进来，或者合法的边缘参与。

(2)Opportunity provisioning= occurs when adults present learning opportunities novices could not have alone。 e.g. many societies supply children with miniature versions of subsistence and survival tools, then actively scaffold their use. 相当于脚手架 (L2学习中相当于给他们一些小组任务、活动之类的)

(3) Stimulus enhancement involves experts focusing novices on key aspects of their environment. 对某方面
的着重强调

(4) Evaluative feedback occurs “when a teacher provides positive or negative reinforcement conditioned on the pupil’s behavior”

可参考文献：
1⃣️ Amador and Adams (2013) 有讲到老师的一些behavior如何help maintain affiliation with learners—crucial to learning
2⃣️ Wang and Loewen (2016) nonverbal behavior during classroom oral corrective feedback in the input and interaction framework. 数据说话，频率，点头was highlighted.

好用的话：
Yet van Compernolle and Smotrova also described “rather spontaneous” gestures that, apparently because of their spontaneity, were effective pedagogical tools (p. 41).

Natural Pedagogy (NP) Tools

ToM refers to the ability to attribute mental states – such as beliefs, desires, intentions, emotions, and perceptions – to oneself and others and to use these mental states in understanding, predicting, and explaining the behavior of oneself and others (Premack and Woodruff, 1978; Mitchell, 1997).

《Nonlinearities in Theory-of-Mind Development》

Theory of mind (ToM) – the ability to understand others’ desires and intentions that can be the same as (or different from) one’s own – is critical for human cognitive development (Frith & Frith, 2003)

(Frith, U., & Frith, C. D. (2003). Development and neurophysiology and mentalizing. Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society of London—Series B: Biological Sciences, 358(1431), 459–473.)

《Children’s and adults’ neural bases of verbal and nonverbal ‘theory of mind’》

1⃣️ Theory of mind refers to the ability to represent, conceptualize, and reason about mental states. In its fully mature stage, theory of mind is a domain-specific conceptual framework that treats certain perceptual input as an agent, an intentional action, a belief, and so forth. This framework can be activated very easily, as Heider and Simmel (1944) have shown with stimuli as simple as triangles that move about in space. Theory of mind arguably underlies all conscious and unconscious cognition of human behavior (Malle, 2001a), thus resembling a system of Kantian categories of social perception—i.e., the concepts by which people grasp social reality (Kant, 1998/1787). But the framework not only classifies perceptual stimuli; it also directs further processing of the classified input, including inference, prediction, and explanation (Malle,
2001a)

2⃣️ Whatever future evolution may bring, the evidence at hand suggests that both language and theory of mind evolved in grades (MacWhinney, this volume) and in constant interaction, serving one primary adaptive goal: to improve social coordination.

<The Relation Between Language and Theory of Mind in Development and Evolution >（Bertram F. Malle,2001)

TOM表现～false belief task 还和动词的选择有关：

One important consideration is that languages differ in the explicitness of verbs for which there is a connotation that a person’s belief may be false.

For example, in Chinese, the verbs yiwei or dang are more explicit and less neutral than xiang in implying that a belief may be false. When either yiwei or dang are used in ToM tasks, Chinese children answer more correctly than with xiang (Lee, Olson, & Torrance, 1999).

( p.436)
书： language and Bilingual Cognition
Chapter: Theory of Mind and bilingual cognition
作者：Michael Siegal, Chiyoko Kobayashi Frank, Luca Surian, and Erland Hjelmquist

‘Theory of mind’’is shorthand for the ability to attribute mental states to oneself or another person (Premack & Woodruff, 1978),and this ability is the main way in which we make senseof or predict another person’s behaviour. Theory of mindis also referred to as ‘‘mentalising’’ (Morton, Frith &Leslie, 1991), ‘‘mind reading’’ (Whiten, 1991), and‘‘social intelligence ’’ (Baron-Cohen, Jolliffe, et al., 1999),and overlaps with the term ‘‘empathy’’

https://acamh-onlinelibrary-wiley-com.ezproxy.is.ed.ac.uk/doi/epdf/10.1111/1469-7610.00715

绿色：定义
橙色：ToM & 语言要素
蓝色：ToM & non-verbal communication

Paired with our knowledge of nonverbal skills, ToM helps us adjust our communication to the people around us by ‘guessing’ their mental states based on their nonverbal communication.

https://www.carolinapeds.com/blog/2015/02/keys-to-social-communication-theory-of-mind

❌从很小（婴儿）开始ToM 就和non-verbal communication 联系在一起了：

Ruffman, et al. (1991) argued that children begin to understand visual ambiguity at around 4 years of age and that their knowledge is firmly placed by age 5.

Ruffman et al. (1991) argue that the reason ambiguity tasks are solved at around 4 years is that they are actually false belief tasks.

<硕士论文： Relationship between possession of theory of mind and use of nonverbal communication strategies>

During the first year of life, infants also come to know about people by interacting with them in every day routines and games , discovering that people can act without being acted upon, thay they are agents who continued to exist in time and space independent of the infant's perception.Further, babies discovered that the person can also be used as a means to an end-- as a social tools through whom the infants can obtain a desired action by using a communicative guesture such as pointing. (p.334)

<Early person knowledge as Expressed in Gestural and Verbal Communication: When do Infants Acquire A "Theory of Mind"?>

Equipped by nature with unique prerequisites for social cognition the human cognitive system already in early childhood develops the capability to differentiate self and others (Decety & Chaminade, 2003), to infer emotional and cognitive states of other minds (Frith & Frith, 2003), to form social impressions and to adjust actions and communicative behavior accordingly (Decety and Chaminade, 2003, Frith and Frith, 2003, Vogeley and Roepstorff, 2009).

https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.is.ed.ac.uk/science/article/pii/S0893608010001164

Bolinger (1983)： non-verbal communicative behaviours

Garfinkel 1967 , Goffmann 1964 , Gumperz 1964 , 1982 Hymes 1972：
human interaction and communication from a more sociological or anthropological perspective

Non verbal behavior:
1⃣️NVB 可以帮助传达显性／隐性的信息
non-verbal behaviours may contribute either to overt communication (speaker’s meaning) or to more covert or accidental forms of information transmission

2⃣️ many such behaviours convey nonpropositional information about mental states or attitudes, or alter the salience of linguistically possible interpretations, rather than expressing full propositions

3⃣️ NVB和语言结合传达出完整意思
such behaviours are integrated both with each other – facial expression, prosody and gesture are closely linked – and with linguistic inputs during the comprehension process

P.3 电子图书馆 《Pragmatics and Non-verbal Communication》

⭐️Minnesota图书馆textbook:
很详细地介绍了nonverbal communication

1⃣️vocal/non-vocal/verbal com/nonverbal com四者关系，
所以nonverbal= Paralanguage➕Body language

2⃣️ Function----Nonverbal Communication Affects Relationships:
😺immediacy behaviors ➡️ play a central role in bringing people together and have been identified by some scholars as the most important function of nonverbal communication (Andersen & Andersen, 2005)

➡️ are verbal and nonverbal behaviors that lessen real or perceived physical and psychological distance between communicators and include things like smiling, nodding, making eye contact, and occasionally engaging in social, polite, or professional touch (Comadena, Hunt, & Simonds, 2007)

➡️ Immediacy behaviors are a good way of creating rapport, or a friendly and positive connection between people. Skilled nonverbal communicators are more likely to be able to create rapport with others due to attention-getting expressiveness, warm initial greetings, and an ability to get “in tune” with others, which conveys empathy (Riggio, 1992). These skills are important to help initiate and maintain relationships.

➡️ 跟teaching 的关系：
which points to the importance of this communication concept in teaching professions (Richmond, Lane, & McCroskey, 2006).

Aside from enhancing student learning, the effective use of immediacy behaviors also leads to better evaluations by students, which can have a direct impact on a teacher’s career.

（judgments of personality may be formed）Research shows that students make character assumptions about teachers after only brief exposure to their nonverbal behaviors.

🔴 总结上面就是影响teaching professions／student learning／学生评价～老师职业／T-S relationship／

好处： Immediacy behaviors help establish rapport, which is a personal connection that increases students’ investment in the class and material, increases motivation, increases communication between teacher and student, increases liking, creates a sense of mutual respect, reduces challenging behavior by students, and reduces anxiety.

⭐️p.227 提供了一些老师有效提升immediacy behaviors的方法：

NVC and L2 learner:

sociocultural theory (SCT)—and involved “just one mode, gesture” (p. 70). SCT- based gesture studies treat gesture mainly as tools by which learners develop/ appropriate L2 knowledge cognitively: “L2 learners’ gestures provide an enhanced window onto their mind by which we can view their thinking and mental representations” (Stam, 2018, p. 165).

<Beyond the Brain- Intercorporeality and Co-Operative Action for SLA Studies.pdf>