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Chapter 1, Chapter 10, Chapter 9, Chapter 12, Chapter 6, Chapter 8,…
Chapter 1
KINGDOMS
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Archaea live in earth's extreme environments, including salty lakes and boiling hot springs
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By using the Scientific Method scientists are able to test and make experiments that find new and interesting ways that the world works
Cohesion creates surface tension that helps water to move from plant roots to leaves (Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae)
Chapter 10
The enzymes that link DNA nucleotides to growing daughter strands are called DNA polymerases. Another enzyme is called DNA ligase, which links the pieces together into a single DNA strand.
The model of DNA replication is called a semi conservative model. The process of replicating DNA is very complex because it requires the coordination of more than a dozen enzymes and proteins.
Viruses that only infect bacteria are called bacteriophages (phages for short) Hershey and Chase conducted an experiment where they grew T2 and E.coli in a solution with radioactive sulfur. As the new phages were made the radioactive sulfur atoms were incorporated only into the protein of the bacteriophages.
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A polynucleotide is a nucleotide polymer chain and each type of DNA nucleotide has a different nitrogen-containing base; Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G) or Thymine (T).
A polynucleotide is a nucleotide polymer chain and each type of DNA nucleotide has a different nitrogen-containing base; Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G) or Thymine (T).
Nucleotides and arranged in a double helix and are joined to one another by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, this forms is sugar-phosphate backbone which has the repeating pattern of sugar-phosphate sugar-phosphate.
Lyric cycle results in the lysis of the shot cell and the release of it produces viruses. During a lysogenic cycle, viral DNA replication occurs without destroying the host cell.
An oncogene can cause cancer when present in a single copy in the cell . Porto-oncogene is a normal cellular green that has the potential of becoming an oncogene.
tumor-suppressor genes encode protiens that help prevent uncontrolled cell growth.
When a change occurs to the genetic information of a cell this is called a mutation. There are many forms of a mutation which include a silent mutation, nonsense mutation and frameshift mutation.
A silent mutation is a change in in the sequence of nucleotide bases but not the amino acid of the overall function.
A missense mutation changes one amino acid to another
nonsense mutation changes an amino acid codon into a stop codon
Frameshift mutation occurs when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three.
A DNA control sequence is called an operator. The operator determines whether RNA polymerase can attach to the pro motor and start transcribing the gene. Also the entire stretch of DNA required for insulin production is called an operon.
Chapter 9
When cells grow out of control, serious health issues occur. Cancer begins with a single cell cycle undergoing changes from a normal healthy cell to a cancer cell. A tumor forms when an abnormal mass of cells grow in the normal tissue. If the tumor remains in its normal spot it’s called a benign tumor. A malignant tumor on the other hand spreads into the tissue next to it and invades other parts of the body, this spreading is called metastasis.
Turner syndrome occurs when one of the X chromosomes is missing.
Autosomes are the recessive and dominant disorders that occur in offspring when the parents are carriers to certain diseases
homologous chromosomes is a set of paternal and maternal pairs. Human females have the homologous pair of X chromosomes (XX) while only have one X and one Y (XY) . These chromosomes are called sex chromosomes the rest are autosomes
Autosomes are the recessive and dominant disorders that occur in offspring when the parents are carriers to certain diseases
It is possible for one gene to influence multiple characters which is called pleiotropy. An example of this is sickle -cell disease. In this disease red blood cells produce abnormal hemoglobin proteins. The sickle cells turn into a banana shape of a crescent moon and tremendously stand out from normal blood cells.
The ABO blood group phenotype in humans involve three alleles of a single gene. Blood types can be A, B, AB or O. The letters refer to carbohydrates called A and B that are found on the surface of red blood cells. The positive and negative notations are Rh blood group systems and are inheritance unrelated genes. Matching these blood types is extremely crucial to safe and healthy blood transfusions. If the blood types do not match between donor and recipient then the recipients immune system will produce proteins called antibodies.
Alternative versions of genes are called alleles and there are dominant and recessive alleles.
dominant alleles means that trait will take over and determine the offspring's traits while a recessive allele will not have a noticeable effect.
an organism that has two identical alleles is said to be a homozygous for the gene and an or organism that has two different alleles for a gene is a heterozygous.
dominant disorders are less severe and don’t harm the health, but do include dwarfism and polydactyly
Heredity is the transmission of traits from one generation to the next, genetics is the field that studies this.
A heritable feature that varies among individuals is called character and also has a trait that makes it unique.
Mutations can happen from errors during DNA replication or combination; this is called spontaneous mutations. Another mutation caused by physical or chemical agents are called mutagens.
Emerging viruses are ones that seem to burst onto the scene, becoming apparent to the medical community quite suddenly. An example of this is HIV which is the virus that causes AIDS.HIV is an RNA virus that resembles the flu and has different modes of replication. It is a retrovirus, an RNA virus that reproduces by DNA molecules. The virus carries reverse transcriptase, which catalyze reverse transcriptions.
Chapter 12
Complementary DNA (cDNA) represents only the sub set of jeans that had been transcribed into mRNA in the starting of cells.
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are organisms that have required one or more gene by artificial means. If a gene is transplanted from one organism to another, typically of another species, the recombinant organisms called a transgenic organism
Modern DNA technology methods have rapidly transformed the field of forensics, the scientific analysis of evidence for crime scene investigation and other legal proceedings. DNA profiling is analysis of DNA samples to determine whether they came from the same individual is one of the most important applications in forensic.
There are two kinds of DNA isolated: first the bacterial plasmid that serves as the vector. Also the DNA from another organism that includes the gene that codes for protein V (gene V) . The scientist will treat the plasmid in the gene V source DNA with an enzyme that cuts DNA. The source DNA, which is usually much longer in sequence than the plasmid, may be cut into many fragments. Then the cut DNA from both sources are mixed, the ends of DNA ligase joins the two DNA molecules by way of covalent bonds. The recombinant bacterium then reproduces through repeated itself cycle to form a clone of cells, when DNA cloning involves a gene carrying segment of DNA it is called gene cloning.
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The whole-genome shotgun method starts with the cloning and sequencing of DNA fragments from randomly cut DNA derived from the entire genome.
Biotechnology is the manipulation of organisms or their components to make useful products. Which in today’s world is referred to as DNA technology. Recombinant DNA is formed when scientists combine pieces of DNA from two different sources.
Chapter 6
Facilitated Diffusion is a passive transport that does not require ATP. While an active transport does require ATP to function.
Facilitated Diffusion is a passive transport that does not require ATP. While an active transport does require ATP to function.
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During chemiosmosis concentration gradient drives H+ through ATP synthesis and is used to power synthesis of ATP
Obligate Anaerobes require anaerobic conditions and are poisoned by oxygen
Facultative Anaerobes make ATP either by fermentation or oxidative phosphorylation (depending on O2 presence)
Three main stages in cellular respiration
Glycolysis occurs in Cytosol and breaks glucose into three carbon compounds called pyruvate. Next, pyruvate oxidation and the citric acids occur in the mitochondria in which the citric acid cycle breaks glucose into carbon dioxide.
Acetyl-CoA delivers acetyl to the cystic acid cycle to later be oxidized for ATP
The final stage is the oxidative phosphorylation which involves electron transport (chemiosmosis) NADH and FADH2 carry electrons to electron transfer chains. Most ATP is generated in this stage.
Chapter 8
Cytokinesis occurs differently for animal and plant cells. In Animals cells cytokinesis occurs by cleavage, while in plant cells the vesicles fuse to form a member and disk called a cell plate.
Mitosis includes Prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase Cytokinesis occurs differently for animal and plant cells
Mitosis includes Prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase Cytokinesis occurs differently for animal and plant cells
prokaryotes cells produce binary fission which means they divide in half. First the cell duplicates and the. Divided into two daughters cells.
In cell division two daughter cells that result are genetically identical to each other and the parent cell. Before the split the cell duplicates its chromosomes (contains most of the cells genetic information in the form of DNA)
Most animal cells exhibit Anchorage dependence which means they have to be in contact with solid surfaces. In a density dependent inhibition crowded cells stop dividing. Sometimes cells will only divide only if growth factors are present.
There are different rupees of reproduction: Asexual and sexual. In asexual reproduction The creation of genetically identical offspring by a single parent, does not need sperm sperm and egg. On the other hand, sexual reproduction requires both the sperm and egg to reproduction offspring
Recessive disorders occur when the parents have no disability/disease but are carriers to it, therefore giving it to their children. Yay-Sachs and Cystic fibrosis are some common diseases
dominant disorders are less severe and don’t harm the health, but do include dwarfism and polydactyly
Chapter 5
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Enzymes play a vital role in reactions. They increase the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
molecules and organelles in the cell depend on ATP to travel throughout the cell and complete their job and continue the cells life
Chemical energy is the potential energy available to be realized in a chemical reaction. An exergonic reaction releases energy, while endergonic reactions take energy in. A metabolism for example is the total of an organism's chemical reaction and a metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions that either build or break molecules into simple compounds.
Energy coupling is the use of energy residing from exergonic reactions to drive endergonic reactions .
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique by which a specific segment of a DNA molecule can be targeted and quickly amplified in the laboratory. The key to amplify one particular segment of DNA is the use of primers which are chemically synthesize single-stranded DNA molecules with sequences that are complementary to sequences at each end of the target sequence
Chapter 11
On the DNA double helix each bead is called its nucleosome which consists of DNA wound twice around a protein core of eat histone molecules.
inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence is called epigenetic inheritance. Mutations in the DNA a permanent changes but modifications to the chromatin can be reversed by processed or not yet fully understood by scientists
To function properly, eukaryotic RNA polymerase required assistance of proteins called transcription factors. The first step in gene transcription is binding of activator proteins to DNA control sequences called enhancers, enhancers are located far away on the chromosome from the gene they help regulate. Once the DNA is bent the bound activators interact with other transcription factor proteins
Genomics, is the study of complete sets of jeans.
The human genome project(HGP) was a massive publicly funded scientific endeavor to determine the nucleotide sequence of all DNA in the human genome and identify the location sequence of every gene
Nuclear transplantation involves replacing the nucleus of an egg cell or a zygote with a nucleus from an injected adult somatic cell. After a few days, repeated cell division form a blastocyst, which is a hollow ball of about 100 cells. This is called reproductive cloning.
Chapter 3
Monomers are Building block of polymers( cells making most of their macromolecules by joining smaller molecules into chains
Lipids are Diverse groups of molecules that are classified together because they do not mix well with water.
hydrophobic, nonpolar, and made up of hydrocarbon chains.
Cells construct a disaccharide from two monosaccharide monomers. The most common disaccharide is sucrose.
DNA- Deoxyribonucleic acid (containing sugar: deoxyribose)
RNA - ribonucleic acid (containing sugar: ribose)
Chapter 4
Eukaryotic Cells
1.)Include animals, plants, fungi
2.)Membrane bound nucleus which stores DNA and several chromosomes and a nucleolus which produces ribosomes to use later in the rough ER
3.) Organelles that perform specific tasks that are bound by a membrane with a lipid and a protein that suits its function.
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Centrosome produces microtubules and are pairs of small organelles called Centriole; both are a part of the cytoskeleton. Cytoskeleton helps maintain the shape of the animal's cell, since there is no wall to protect it.
Golgi apparatus are stacks of membranes that store macromolecules. Also, Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes for intracellular digestion.
Peroxisomes are responsible for protecting the cell from its own hydrogen peroxide that white blood cells produce.
In the cytoplasm membranous tubules and works with the nucleus, their functions are to produce proteins. The rough ER has ribosomes while the smooth ER does not.
Chapter 7
Photosynthesis is the process of converting carbon dioxide and water gi auger and organic molecules with the help of solar energy.
Due to photosynthesis, plants are autotrophs and produce their own food through it. Specifically, plants are photoautotrophs.
Heterotrophs on the other hand can’t produce their own food and instead get it from oknaga or other animals.
Thanks to chlorophyll, plants get their green color due to the chlorophyll being a light absorbing pigment. Next, photosynthesis occurs in leaves and they carry millions of chloroplasts. The chloroplasts are concentrated in the cells mesophyll and stomata are pores which lets CO2 we get and O2 leave.
In the stroma is a system of interconnected thylakoids and is concentrated in grana.
The distance between the crests of electromagnetic waves is a wavelength and the electromagnetic spectrum is the full range of electromagnetic waves. Also, light behaves as a packet of energy called photons.
Gene therapy are alterations of a diseased individuals gene for therapeutic purposes. For gene therapy to be permanent to normal allele would have to be transferred to solve some multiple throughout a person's life.
Chapter 2
BONDS
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Hydrogen bond This bond is formed by the hydrogen atoms of a water molecule attaching to oxygen by polar covalent bonds
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