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Algorithmic Societies, cod - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Privacy Violation
        
        accounts
        
        access account
        (Macnish)
        
        violation when somebody else accesses one's data
        
        Ex.:
        if we lose diary and recollect it before somebody reads it, no privacy loss seems to occur
        
        Arguments Against
        
        external control over data without access leads to a conflict between internal & external power
        
        does automatic processing data fall under the access of data?
        
        control account
        
        Privacy is violated when somebody
        takes control of ones data
        
        even when no data is accessed
        
        Vague naming vs specific naming
        → definition of privacy changes discussion on topic
        
        cases
        
        unaccessed data
        
        No Blackmailing Attempt
        
        no reduction in security
        
        no privacy loss
        
        Blackmailing Attempt
        
        No privacy loss
        
        reduction in security
        
        accessed data
        
        Blackmailing Attempt
        
        privacy loss
        
        reduction in security
        
        No Blackmailing Attempt
        
        privacy loss
        
        no reduction in security
      - Dimensions
        
        Decisional Privacy
        
        Protects
        
        people
        
        decisions
        
        actions
        
        ways of life
        
        Is Threatened By
        
        State interference (laws, regulations, nudging, ...)
        
        Interference by other people
        
        Cultural expectations
        
        Informational Privacy
        
        Protects
        
        Everything that can be known about people
        
        Is Threatened By
        
        Social Media
        
        The Internet
        
        Government Surveilance
        
        Gossiping
        
        Spying
        
        Local Privacy
        
        Protects
        
        Whatever a Person does within her own four walls
        
        Is Threatened By
        
        Government intrusion (search warrants, SWAT teams)
        
        Voyeurism
        
        Lacking a room of one's own
      - Value of Privacy
        
        Fosters personal autonomy &
        development of one's personality
        
        Creates autonomous democratic citizens
        
        Protects human dignity
        
        Allowed Privacy-Violation
        leads to intimacy and personal relationship
        (love, friendship, cooperation etc.)
        
        Guarantees freedom from embarassment
      - Government Surveilance
        
        video surveilance
        
        telecommunication data
        
        general safety measures
  - - - Distributive Justice
        distribution by a fair share of resources
        
        "The Good"
        the positive demands - to be secured
        
        everyone receives his/her due
        
        "to each according to his need, from each according to his ability" (Marx)
        
        →
        +
        all receive their due
        -
        flawed reality
        
        "The Bad"
        the negative demand - to be avoided
        
        reduce unchosen disadvantage/hardship
        
        avoid rewarding the irresponsible
        
        →
        +/-
        unjust hardship/advantage
        clustering of advantages/disadvantages
        enhancing general injustices
        //access to school for everyone gives access but says nothing about the quality of school in lower socioeconomic areas
      - Relational Justice
        justice stems from the relation between individuals
        → individual interactions AND institutional level
        
        "The Good"
        the positive demands - to be secured
        
        secure interactions among all 'on a footing of equality'
        
        inter-individual
        
        institutional
        
        secure that all have enough to interact as equals
        
        →
        utopian reality: ability to connect and interact as equals across the world
        
        "The Bad"
        the negative demand - to be avoided
        
        reduce/end oppression in its different forms
        
        exploitation
        
        marginalization
        
        powerlessness
        
        cultural imperialism
        
        violence
        
        Stuctural Injustice
        when social processes
        
        put large categories of persons under a systemic threat of domination or deprivation
        
        enable others to dominate/have wide range of opportunities for developing and exercising their capabilities
    - - organisation of society
        political institutions
        
        penal law
        
        marriage laws
        
        ...
      - distribution & exchange
        of
        
        goods
        
        rights
        
        entitlements
      - interaction between individuals
      - personal conduct, justice as virtue
      - Justices
        
        distributive
        
        relational
        
        prodedural
        
        interactional
        
        retributive
        
        transactional
        
        restorative/transitional
        
        epistemic
        
        social
        
        intergenerational
        
        global
        
        climate
        
        gender
        
        environmental
        ...
        
        Algorithmic justice
        //any context in which different viewpoints can come into conflict
    - - grounds of justice
        what is the basis of justice claims?
        
        eternal natural law
        
        divine command
        
        human equality
        
        common ownership of Earth
        
        imagined (global) social contract
      - site of justice
        to which entities/agents do justice claims primarily apply?
        
        governments
        
        institutions
        
        companies
        
        groups
        
        individuals
      - Scope of justice
        among whom do obligations of justice pertain?
        
        interactional
        
        local
        
        domestic
        
        international
        
        global
      - metrics of justice
        how can justice be measured
        
        goods
        
        resources
        
        wellbeing
        
        opportunities/access
        
        relational goods
        
        recognition
      - patterns of justice
        how is justice to be distributed?
        
        equality
        
        sufficiency
        
        priority
      - principles of justice
        according to which criteria do we decide about (re-)distribution
        
        desert/effort (individual responsibility
        
        maximal benefit
        
        need (sufficiency/priority)
        
        contract
        
        equality
        
        sustainability
        
        authoritarian
        
        ...
    - - Oppression
        
        Marginalization
        
        discimination
        
        acces denied
        
        silent voices
        
        silenced additionally through algorithmic bias and epistemic injustice
        
        Powerlessness
        
        unheard voices
        
        inability to speak up / regulate the powerful agents
        
        Cultural imperialism
        
        cultural dominance from the Global North
        
        Violence
        
        cyber-hate
        
        bullying
        
        Exploitation
        
        data-exploitation
        
        power asymmetry
        
        "free" services are paid with data
      - Types of Concern
        
        "Classic" Concerns
        
        surveillance & privacy
        
        persuasive design practices
        
        spread of misinformation online
        
        lack of accountability
        
        abuse
        
        "Specific" Concern
        distinctive intersection between social injustice & technology
        
        digital sphere mirrors/perpetuates/increases the existing relational injustices IRL
        
        implicit bias/algorithmic bias; epistemic injustice
      - Problem
        
        Motivation
        
        making profits VS provision o essential services/catering to basic human needs (interaction, information, ...)
        
        →
        problem with distribution
        
        One-Sidedness
        not actively listening to people negatively affected (Silicon Valley techno-utopianism VS. experiences of diverse people underrepresented in Silicon Valley → abusive speech against Black Women)
        → problem of relation
        (fairness/distribution alone does not capture it)
      - Solution
        == Structural Change
        
        accountability, legal oversight, top-down regulation
        → digital sphere == public sphere where basic goods are distributed
        
        Digital rights activism
        
        in digital times
        
        to digital services
        
        -social equity
        
        egalitarian ethos
        
        responsibility
        in
        
        individuals
        
        companies
        
        institutions
        
        Responsibility for Justice
        
        Top-Down VS Bottom-Up VS mixed views
        
        international community
        
        regulation: human right to internet access
        
        initiative: (EU regulation, digital strategies, ...)
        
        Governments
        national legislation & initiatives
        
        Companies
        critique and debate within companies
        
        Designers
        
        design ethics
        
        ethical trainings for engineers
        
        Users
        disruptive hacking
        
        Citizens
        broad public & political debate
        
        individuals
        
        ethical use
        
        netiquette
  - - - Creative Reflection
      - Critical Reflection
    - - Develop arguments
        
        List of Propositions
        
        Inferences between propositions
        
        Conclusion
        
        P1: all men are mortal
        P2. Socrates is a man
        C: Socrates is mortal
      - Theoretical Reasoning
      - Practical Reasoning
      - Demand for
        
        non-contradiction
        
        sensitivity to evidence
        
        Enkratic requirement
        
        Means-End coherence
      - Logic
        
        Modus Ponens
        If A is true, then B is true.
        A is true. Therefore, B is true.
        
        Modus Tollens
        If A is true then B is true.
        B is not true. Therefore, A is not true.
  - - - Differentiating AI
        
        weak AI
        
        machine learning
        
        deep learning
        
        general AI
        
        consciousness
        
        ...
        is true AI even achievable? / How to know when we achieved it?
      - Can moral decision-making be automated?
      - Impact of progressive automation on work
        Changing working conditions; the kinds of work humans will do...
      - "Evil Geniuses"
        
        off-switch Problem
      - Robot / Machine Rights
        
        Asimov’s Laws of Robotics
        
        A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
        
        A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
        
        A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Laws.
        
        UK’s Principles of Robotics
        
        Robots should not be designed as weapons, except for national security reasons.
        
        Robots should be designed and operated to comply with existing law, including privacy.
        
        Robots are products: as with other products, they should be designed to be safe and secure.
        
        Robots are manufactured artefacts: the illusion of emotions and intent should not be used to exploit vulnerable users.
        
        It should be possible to find out who is responsible for any robot.
      - Singularity and existential threats
        Humanity and sensitivity to human values
      - Timeline Questions
        when to ask which AI-question?
  - - - Oxford Munich Code
        
        activity documentation
        
        data adequacy evaluation
        
        artificial data handling
        responsibility to communicate all procedures to make the original data more adequate for a specific problem
        
        responsible data selection
        analysis of input data in order to assess it for any indicators of previous bias like cherry-picking/model back to particular statement/insight/outcome
        
        inherent data bias
        analyze & document potential bias
        
        Accuracy vs Explainability trade off
        the more accurate the data is, the harder it is to be broken into pieces and to be explained
        
        Transparency as a duty
        transparency in a forum as allowable by legal and proprietary constraints
        
        Team code acquaintance and deviating behaviors
        
        make sure all colleagues follow the code
        
        flag deviating behavior
        
        responsibility on inventions
        
        gauging benefit vs risk of any invention
        
        protection & security of potential harming inventions
  - - - Strengthen Competency
      - Define Responsibilities
      - Document Goals and Anticipated Impact
      - Guarantee Security
      - Provide Labeling
      - Ensure Intelligibility
      - Safeguard Manageability
      - Monitor Impact
      - Establish complaint mechanisms
  - - - Dual Use Problem
        The designer's purpose does not exhaust the use of a product
        Dual-Use == the unintended use of a product
        "Are designers ethically responsible not only for what we intend a product to do, but also for the dual-use thereof?"
        
        Standard of Reasonable conscientiousness
        what can be expected from a reasonable person
        
        Great Complexity
        greater difficulty to foresee
        
        Generalizability of the Tool
        the more generalizable the more difficult to foresee single use
      - Ethical decisions occur during the planning for and conducting of research, not just when applying results to new technology
    - - IEEE Code if Ethics
        
        II
        To treat all persons fairly and with respect, to not engage in harassment or discrimination, and to avoid injuring others.
        
        III
        To strive to ensure this code is upheld by colleagues and co-workers.
        
        I
        To uphold the highest standards of integrity, responsible behavior, and ethical conduct in professional activities.
        
        2.
        improve the understanding by individuals and society of the capabilities and societal implications of conventional and emerging technologies, including intelligent systems;
        
        3.
        
        avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible
        
        disclose conflicts of itnerest if they exist
        
        4.
        
        avoid unlawful conduct
        
        reject bribery
        
        5.
        seek, accept, offer honest criticism
        to
        
        acknowledge & correct errors
        
        be honest & realistic
        credit properly to contribution of others
        
        6.
        
        stick to qualified tasks
        
        disclose about pertinent limitations
        
        1.
        
        hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public
        
        comply with ethical design & sustainable development practices
        
        protect privacy of others
        
        disclose factors that might endanger the public/environment
      - ACM
        association for computing machinery
        
        Reflection upon wider impact of work supporting the public good
    - - How to ensure non-maleficience
      - What is the greater good?
      - What increases well-being?
        
        individually
        
        socially
        
        globally
      - Smaller Questions
        
        • „Should someone be included as a part of a large aggregate of data?
        
        • What if someone’s ‘public’ blog post is taken out of context and analyzed in a way that the author never imagined?
        
        • What does it mean for someone to be spotlighted or to be analyzed without knowing it?
        
        • Who is responsible for making certain that individuals and communities are not hurt by the research process?
        
        • What does informed consent look like?“ (Boyd and Crawford 2014)
- - - - cognitive
        categories as soon as we are born
        
        gender
        
        race
        
        study program
        
        only child
        
        ...
        
        Useful & necessary
        
        danger: step towards prejudice
        
        Categorize
        
        what we regard as normative
        
        what people think is normative in one culture
        
        → Information consistent with stereotypes will be
        
        given more attention
        
        rehearsed more often
        
        → remembered better
        
        positive Stereotypes
        // Benevolent Sexism/Racism/...
        → both forms, positive & negative stereotypes legitimize discrimination against the group in question
        
        Stereotypes
        a generalization of a group in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members regardless of actual variation between members
      - affective
        deep-seated feelings
        -> emotional heat towards a certain group
        
        undermines logical thinking
        
        Explicit
        conscious prejudice decline
        
        Implicit
        unconscious negative feelings
      - behavioral
        
        Discrimination
        unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member oif a group solely because of his/her membership to the group
        
        official
        
        Subtle
        
        Microaggression
        small but offensively experienced expressions in daily communication
        
        microinvalidations
        ignoring/excluding/devaluing thoughts/feelings/perception of others
        
        microinsults
        complimenting people that seem foreign for their good language skills
        
        microassaults
        explixit attacks
        
        Social Distance
        a person's reluctance to "get to close to a group"
    - - Social Identity
        part of persons self-concept that is based on his/her identification with the belonging to a certain group or other social affiliation
      - In-Group-Bias
        the tendency to favor members of the own group over people who belong to other groups
        
        both in temporal & trivial groups AND long-lasting & important groups
        
        minimla groups
        
        Ethnocentrism
        cultural or ethnic bias:
        the belief that one's own culture is superior to others // lives the correct way of living
      - Outgroup Homogeneity
        the perception that individuals in the out-group are more similar to each other (homogenous)than members of the in-group are
      - Blaming the victim
        the tendency to blame individuals (make dispositional attributions) for their victimization, typically motivated to see the world as a fair place
        
        the stronger the belief in a fair world, the more the tendency to blame the individuals
        → often happens for people who rarely experienced discrimination
  - - - Definitions
        
        Race
        refers to physical differences that groups and cultures consider significant
        → no biological/scientific basis for race
        
        Ethnicity
        shared cultural characteristics such as language, ancestry, practices and beliefs
      - Robot Characteristics-Design
        rating robots based on their
        
        likability
        
        threat
        
        dominance
        
        familiarity
        
        human likeness
        
        mechanical appearance
        
        Threat
        Asian & Arab > White & Asian
        
        Likability
        White & Asian > Asian / Arab
      - Robot Shooter Bias
        
        participants were quicker to shoot an armed Black agent than an armed White agent / simultaneously faster to refrain from shooting an unarmed White than an unarmed Black agent
        → regardless of whether human or robot
        
        short response window with accuracy instead of latency
        similar to experiment 1: participants were faster to not shoot at an unarmed White than an unarmed Black agent - No shooter bias on error rates
    - - Male Robot
        participants were:
        
        ascribe more agency related traits
        
        seeing the female robot as more capable for stereotypical male tasks
        
        more likely to choose a math task to work on together with the robot than a verbal task
      - Female Robot
        participants were:
        
        ascribe more communal related traits
        
        seeing the female robot as more capable for stereotypical female tasks
        
        equally likely to choose a math task or a verbal task to work on together with the robot
  - - - multi-identity robots/systems
        
        one distributed system for multiple robots
        
        one robot with multiple identities
        
        robots that fit the personalized expectations of the user/user groups
        → would need to use stereotypes to tailor behavior -> fosters stereotypes
      - In-Group designers
        having more diverse// more specified in-group designers within the process of design
      - Designing against established structural Discrimination
  - - - Social Consequences
        
        → Attend, Appraise and Attribute
        → Need Fortification
        → if ostracism episodes persist over extended time
        
        Resignation Stage
        → Depleted Resources - Inability to Fortify Needs
        
        Temporal Need-Threat Model
        Williams 2009
        
        1.
        Minimal Signal
        
        Detection of Ostracism
        
        → Need Threat
        (belonging, self-esteem, ontrol, meaningful existence
        
        2.
        Reflexive Stage
        → Pain
        → Negative Affect (sadness/anger)
        
        3.
        Reflective Stage
        -> Attend, Appraise and Attribute
        
        meaning
        
        relevance
        
        motives
        
        -> Need fortification
        
        if ostracism episodes persist over extended time
        
        1 more item...
- - - - non-diverse team
      - non-diverse training data
- - - - h=0
        complete heterophily
        
        minorities in beneficial position
        
        tendency of unsimilar nodes to attach to each other
        
        = bond in diverse groups
        
        leads to
        
        weak ties in a group
        
        weak ties are more
        effective in reaching individuals
        
        higher influence by the differing (partner)
        
        problems in communication
        
        ties are harder to create & harder to maintain
        
        a large number of nodes having a small number of links and a few of them having many
      - h = 1
        complete homophily :
        
        minorities in
        underrepresented/disadvantaged
        position
        
        tendency of similar nodes to attach to each other
        
        = bond in similar groups
        
        types
        
        status h.
        
        race
        
        gender
        
        age
        
        ...
        
        socio-economic status
        
        value h.
        
        attitudes that are valued
        
        leads to
        
        intrinsic level of interpersonal attraction
        
        strong ties in the group
        
        same information
        
        less innovation though diffusion of information
        
        a large number of nodes with a large number of links
      - degree of a node
        
        number of edges that are incident to the vertex/node of a graph
    - - weak integration
        
        established nodes rather have
        a new connection than new nodes
      - long-run integration
        
        long term neighbouring nodes
        delete bias between each other
      - partial integration
        
        some bias stays while neighbouring nodes converge monotonically
- - - - Consensus
        
        Germany Consensus
        
        For
        
        racial distinguishment
        
        organization of concentration camps
        
        US Consensus
        
        For
        
        railways
        
        money
        
        ...
      - US internment camps of japanese citizens
        
        locator files