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Research methods - Coggle Diagram
Research methods
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Animal studies
- A research method where animals are observed in their natural environment is known as ethology.
- From Pavolv's dogs and Skinner's rats to more recent studies involving the language abilities of apes, animals feature heavily in the learning approach.
- This research is based on evolutionary theory originally proposed by Darwin, stating that humans are descended from animal ancestors - that humans are in fact animals.
- Mice share 90% of their genes with humans and rhesus monkeys share 93% of their genes with chimpanzees and humans, therefore are preferred in research.
- Even if we accept evolutionary psychology, humans have evolved to be very different from most other animals, perhaps all other animals - generalisability.
- There are practical advantages to such research - animals can be controlled more exactly than humans and observed more continuously - validity.
- Their lack of self-awareness reduces the liklihood of demand characteristics in experimental conditions - social desirability bias.
- Animals have an absolute right not to be harmed or to be interferred with by us. It's not enough to make research as humane as possible: it simply shouldn't happen at all - ethics.
Case studies
- Indepth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Data is typically gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations and interviews).
- The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.
- Case studies involve simply recording what happens to - or reconstructing what has already happened to - single participant or group of individuals. This is called the 'ideographic approach' in science - it doesn't test hypotheses, look for causes or try to uncover laws.
- Case studies have tiny sample groups - often just a single person. These people mmight not be representative of normal people; they might not even be representative of other unusual people - generalisability.
- Case studies are particularly useful in clinical psychology because they shed light on unusual conditions that don't fit the patterns of 'normal' behaviour - application.
- The main advantage of case studies is in the rich, in-depth data they gather. Case studies "get under the skin" of the participants and help the researchers understand the participants much more thoroughly than any one-off interview or stand-alone experiment would - validity.
- Social responsibility is important in ethical research. Studying rare or unusual cases is important, but researchers need to bear in mind the effect that this can have on public opinion - ethics.
Brain scanning
- PET scans requires radioactive substances to be injected to give off gama rays. It produces detailed 3-dimensional images of the inside of the brain, however, it is less precise than an MRI.
- MRI scans use strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of the inside of the brain.
- fMRI scans detect changes associated with blood flow. When an area of the brain is in use, blood flow to that region of the brain also increases.
- The fMRI cannot meaure the brain at rest (the brain is never at rest, so this applies to PET too) and so there is no baseline measure and it is hard to pinpoint actual functioning for a specific activity - validity.
- Very precise data is producted and with the brain being so complex, precision is required when it comes to finding out about brain structure and brain functioning - objective.
- They are carried out in a controlled setting so cannot show how the brain responds in real life - predictive/ecological validity.
- Produces quantitative data, therefore cannot be interpreted to fit a bias - reliable.
Content analysis
- A method used to analyse qualitative data.
- In its most common form, it is a technique that allows a researcher to take qualitative data and to transform it into quantitative data.
- The researcher conducting a content analysis will use 'coding units' in their work. These units vary widely depending on the data used.
- The coding units are not open to interpretation and so are applied in the same way over time and with different researchers - reliability.
- Easy technique and not too time consuming.
- As it only describes the data, it cannot extract any deeper meaning or explanation for the data patterns arising - cause and effect.
Correlational research
- The aim of correlational research is to identify variables that have some sort of relationship to the extent that a change in one creates some change in the other.
- This type of research is descriptivee, unlike experimental research that relies entirely on scientific methodology and hypothesis.
- The researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable because it is impossible, impractical, or unethical.
- Correlational research can be time-consuming and expensive - practical issues.
- Outcomes can be affected by the participants dependent on the method that you are collecting your data - social desirability bias.
- Correlational studies are not interpreted to fit the hypothesis as the data is quantitative -objectivity.
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Cross cultural studies
- The systematic study of human psychological processes and behaviour across multiple cultures.
- Involving the observation of similarities and differences in values, practices and so forth between different societies.
- Mary Ainsworth is one of the main examples who conducted many cross-cultural studies into the type of attachments children had with their parents.
- Cross-cultural studies produce qualitative studies, therefore researchers may be subjective and not interpret cross-cultural behaviour accurately - subjectivity.
- These studies help to reduce ethnocentrism meaning that future studies can be applicable to a wider sample - generalisable.
- There may be language barriers/lack of understanding from different cultures - practical issues.
Meta-analysis
- A quantitative, formal study design used to systematically assess the results of previous research to derive conclusions about the body of research.
- Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg conducted a meta-analysis on the cultural differences of attachment types (child approach).
- Carlsson et al conducted a meta-analysis on the relationship between SZ and dopaminergic dysfunction.
- Therer is greater statistical power and more ability to extrapolate to the greater population - generalisable.
- Like other research methods, it can be difficult and time-consuming to find all of the appropriate studies to examine - practical issues.
- A biased meta-analysis can produce misleading results; the three main types of bias are publication bias, search bias and selection bias. This means that there may be a lack of objectivity as researchers are pick 'n' mixing the secondary studies they need to support their hypothesis - subjectivity and bias.