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Biology 160 - Coggle Diagram
Biology 160
Exam 2
Chapter 5: The Working Cell
Energy and the Cell
release or store energy
metabolism
endergonic- require energy
metabolic pathway
exergonic- release energy
energy coupling
ATP
phosphorylation
energy
kinetic energy
thermal energy
thermodynamics
1st law of thermodynamics: energy conservation
use quantity called: entropy
2nd law of thermodynamics: energy transfer
release
chemical energy
potential energy
energy by cellular respiration
system, surrounding, open, isolated
laws made by scientists
potential energy
How Enzymes Function
connection
deadly poison
pesticides
drugs as enzyme inhibitors
specific
induced fit
active site
condition
temperature
ph
cofactors- coenzymes
substrate
inhibitors
feedback inhibition
noncompetitive inhibitors
competitive inhibitors
enzymes
activation energy
protein catalyst
enzymes
enzymes
Membrane Structure and Function
5.3
passive transport
cellular respiration
diffusion
osmosis
scientific research on another membrane protein
active transport
moves solute against concentration gradient
energy
evolution connection
phospholipids self assemble, step to evolve
water balance
tonicity
isotonic
animal cell: normal
plant cell: flaccid
hypotonic
animal cell: lysed
plant cell: turgid (normal)
plants cells
they reproduce
1 more item...
hypertonic
plant cell: shriveled (plasmolyzed)
animal cell: shriveled
osmoregulation
5.1
plamsa membrane
attachment protein
receptor protein
selective permeability
junction protein
glycoprotein
fluid mosaic model
mosaic- diverse proteins
fluid- phospholipid bilayer
2 mechanism
endosytosis
phagocytosis
receptor-mediated endocytosis
exocytosis
transport proteins
hydrophilic
facilitated diffusion
hydrophobic
structure and function are related
connected
Chapter 6: How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy
Stages of Cellular
Respiration
Brown fat
burn fuel to produce heat without ATP
Fats but not from food, it is in body
in humans
3 main stages
Pyruvate oxidation and citric acid cycle
two carbon from acetyl CoA added
2 CO2 are released
Oxidize pyruvate → acetyl CoA, CO2, and NADH
3 NADH and 1 FADH2 are produced
location: mitochondria
oxidative phosphorylation
electron transport chain
chemiosmosis
Electrons + O2 + H+ → H2O
location: inner mitochondrial membrane
NADH & FADH2 electrons to ETC
NAD+ reduced to NADH
glycolysis
breaks down glucose into two molecules of three carbon pyruvate
input- : 1 glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NAD+
location: cytosol
output: : 2 pyruvate, 4 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 H2O
ATP formed by Substrate-level phosphorylation
ATP
32 ATP
1 glucose
Citric acid= 2 ATP + 6 NADH + 2 FADH2
Pyruvate oxidation= 2 NADH
Glycolysis= 2 ATP + 2 NADH
Without gradient ATP synthase could not make ATP
Fermentation: Anaerobic Harvesting of Energy
fermentation
harvest chemicals without oxygen
yeast produces ATP by glycolysis
NAD+ form NADH reduced
alcohol and CO2
alcohol fermentation
lactate
lactic acid fermentation
evolution connection
glycolysis evolved in ancient prokaryotes
evolution theme
Cellular Respiration: Aerobic Harvesting of Energy
cellular respiration
transfers energy to make ATP
exergonic process
body needs energy
balance for healthy weight
cellular respiration gives energy
respiration
cellular respiration: aerobic harvest of energy from food by cell
respiration: breathing sense- exchange of gases
cells capture energy
redox reaction
oxidation
reduction
both endergonic and exergonic reactions
redox
NADH passes to electrons transport chain
NAD+ reduced to NADH
energy required
cellular respiration
cell capture energy to make ATP
sugar broken into CO2 and H2O
photosynthesis
CO2 (carbon dioxide) and H2O atoms rearranged
captured by chloroplasts
produce sugar and oxygen
food for plants
photosynthesis - plants
Connections Between Metabolic Pathways
metabolic pathways regulated by feedback inhibition
use intermediates+ATP for biosynthesis
fuel for cellular respiration
obtain by biomolecules
carbs
macromolecules
fats
proteins
Chapter 4: A Tour of the Cell
The Endomembrane System
vacuoles
large vesicles with functions
food, contractile and large central vacuole
golgi apparatus
processes/ sends out ER to other cell surface
lysososmes
enzymes break down substances/damages organelles
workshop
endoplasmic reticulum
rough er
produce membrane, surface ribosomes
transport vesicle
smooth er
synthesize lipids/process toxins
peroxisomes
not from endomembrane system
organelles/ endomembrane system
organelles
nuclear envelope, er, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, vacuoles, plasma membrane
endomembrane system
functions
synthesis, distribution, storage, export molecules
membranes connected and vesicles
Energy-Converting Organelles
chloroplasts
thylakoid
photosynthesis
endergonic reaction
use sunlight
grana
stroma
mitochondra
mitochondrial matrix
inter-membrane space
evolution connection
endosymbiont theory
The Nucleus and Ribosomes
ribosomes make protein
DNA to RNA to protein pathway
Nucleus has genetic instructions
nucleolus
chromatin
chromosome
nucleus
atoms center
The Cytoskeleton and Cell Surfaces
extracellular matrix (ECM)
glycoproteins and integrins
functions- bind tissue, support, communicate
3 junctions
gap junction
anchoring junction
tight junction
cytoskeleton
intermediate filaments
reinforce shape, fix, permanent framework
microfilaments
shape, pseudopodia, cytoplasmic streaming
microtubules
cilia and flagella
centrosomes and centrioles
shape, support
structure and function- structure of microtubules allows the support
functions
maintain shape, anchor movement, muscle contraction
scientists discovered cytoskeleton
cell wall
protects and supports
junction- plasmodesmata
eukaryotic cilia and flagella
Introduction to the Cell
-
Eukaryotic cells
All cells
Chromosomes
extra chromosomes
Plasma membrane
Cytosol/Cytoplasm
ribosomes
Prokaryotic cells
Nucleiod
Cell Wall
Flagella
Eukaryotic cells
functions
support and communicate
plasma membrane
cell wall
cytoskeleton
manufacturing materials
endoplasmic reticulum
golgi apparatus
lysosomes
vacuoles
peroxisomes
genetic control
nucleus
ribosomes
energy processing
chloroplasts
mitochondria
organelles
microscopes
light mircoscope (LM)
scanning electron microscope (SEM)
Electron microscope (EM)
transmission electron microscope (TEM)
cell theory
plasma membrane
Exam 1
Chapter 2: The Chemical Basis of Life
Chemical Bonds
Covalent bonds join atoms into molecules through electrons sharing
The distribution of electrons determines an atom’s chemical properties
Ionic bonds are attractions between ions of opposite charge
Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds important in the chemistry of life
polar covalent
Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds
this has ractions
reactions- chemical or other
Water’s Life-Supporting Properties
Water’s hydrogen bonds moderate temperature
Ice floats because it is less dense than liquid water
Hydrogen bonds make liquid water cohesive
water
solution, solvent, solute
ph scale
acidic and basic
ocean acidification
ice is less dense than water
cohesion and adhesion and surface tension
look for water on other planets
H20
needed for life
subatomic particles
Water is the solvent of life
The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and basic conditions
Scientists study the effects of rising atmospheric CO2 on coral reef ecosystems
The search for extraterrestrial life centers on the search for water
water
Elements, Atoms,
and Compounds
Trace elements are common additive to food and water
required in small amounts
if not have- can cause disease
Atoms consists of protons, neutrons and electrons
atoms
protons
neutrons
electrons
Organisms are composed of elements, usually combined into compounds
Radioactive isotopes can help or harm us
Chapter 3: The Molecules of Cells
Lipids
Fats and lipids that are mostly energy-storage molecules
Function: longterm energy storage
functions
glycerol
phospholipid
saturated and unsaturated
fats
Scientific studies document the health risks of trans fats
Phospholipids and steroids are important lipids with a variety of functions
Anabolic steroids pose health risks
Proteins
Proteins have a wide range of functions and structures
amino acid
polypeptide
structure and function
enzymes
chemical reactions
Proteins are made from amino acids linked by peptide bonds
A protein's functional shape results from four levels
Carbohydrates
Two monosaccharides are linked to form a disaccharide
Are we eating too much sugar
Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrate
glucose, fructose
Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units
starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin
Nucleic Acids
The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are information-rich polymers of nucleotides
Nucleotides
phosphate
ribose
Lactose tolerance is a recent event in human evolution
DNA+ RNA
nucleic acids
RNA
Introduction to Organic Compounds
A few chemical groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules
Cells make large molecules from a limited set of small molecules
Life’s molecular diversity is based on the properties of carbon
carbon
chemical compounds
Chapter 1: Biology: Exploring Life
The Process of Science
Hypothesis can be tested with observation
science process: repetitive nonlinear, collaborative
Hypothesis can be tested using controlled experiments
controlled experiments
dependent variable
dependent
controlled varibale
independent variable
biology, technology, and society are connected
biology
technology
What is science
data
hypothesis
science
experiment
theory
Five Unifying Themes in Biology
Life depends on the flow of information
genetic information
T
C
A
G
genes
tree of life
gene expression
both have gene expressions
signaling information
Structure and Function are related
observed on every level of life
Evolution is connected to out everyday lives
artificial selection
evolution
Life depends on the transfer and transformation of energy and matter
flow of energy
outflow of heat
cycling of matter
theme of energy and matter- both use energy and connects to the theme
Evolution is the core theme of biology
Darwins theory of evolution
natural selection
evolution
Life depends on interactions within and between systems
systems biology
interactions
Biology: The Scientific Study of Life
biologists arrange the diversity of life into 3 domains
Eukarya
humans in here
Bacteria
Archaea
domains
life's hierarchy of organizations, emerging properties
organism
organ system
emergent properties
organ
community
tissue
ecosystem
cell
biosphere
organelle
population
molecule
emergent properties
what is life
Lifes 7 properties
order
reproduction
response to environment
growth and development
evolutionary adaption
energy processing
Cell is structure and function
regulation
biollogy
Exam 4
Chapter 11: How Genes Are Controlled
Cloning of Plants and Animals
biologists can clone animal- nuclear transplantation
nuclear transplantation
reproductive cloning
therapeutic cloning can produce stem cells
therapeutic cloning
adult stem cell
embryonic stem cells
Plant cloning shows differentiated cell
totipotent
regeneration
clone
plants get cloned, and they can pass that they are both hypotonic
The Genetic Basis of Cancer
genetic changes in cancer
protein interfere with normal transduction
Cancer results from mutations in genes
tumor-suppressor gene
proto-oncogene
cancer
proto-oncogene --> oncogene
oncogene
genes
cancer can be cause
lifestyle choice reduce risk of cancer
carcinogen
Control of Gene Expression
noncoding RNA- multiple roles in gene expression
small interfering RNAs (siRNAs)
formation of centromere
methylation for gamete formation
RNA interference of translation
RNA interference (RNAi)
microRNA (miRNA)
block translation of partially complementing mRNAs
degrade complementing mRINAs
chromosomes structure and chemical modifications
nucleosome
differentiation
cells
cells, described and cloned
histone
packed up DNA= no expression
histones + DNA--> nucleosomes
X chromosome inactivation
barr body
epigenetic inheritance
cells and gene expression- animal development
homeotic gene
animal develop by RNA and protein
Later stage of gene expression- regulation
protein processing
proteins
breakdown of mRNA
mRNA
regulatory proteins for translation
researchers monitor specific gene expression
nucleic acid hybridization
DNA microarray
complex proteins control eukaryote
transcription factor
proteins assisting
RNA polymerse
enhancers
eukaryotes usually use activators
gene off
eukaryotes are connected
Signal transduction pathways to convert message
signal transductive pathway
mechanism regulate gene expression
cell signaling system appeared early
Eukaryotic RNA may be spliced in more than one way
alternative RNA splicing
Humans 90% protein-coding gene
proteins interact with DNA
promotor
operator
repressor
activator
regulatory gene
gene expression
gene regulation
regulatory proteins
operon
proteins
proteins, broken down
Chapter 12: DNA Technology and Genomics
Genetically Modified Organisms
Gene therapy for diseases
gene therapy
hep life
GMO transforming agriculture
transgenic organism
genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
GMOs could be plants
use or not use photosynthesis
Use of GMO is questioned
104 pig: some fed 39% GMO corn and the rest not
experiment with 68 Chinese schoolchildren
DNA technology change pharmaceutical industry
vaccine
recombinant cells gene production
DNA Profiling
Gel electrophoresis sorts DNA molecules by size
gel electrophoresis
Short tandem repeat analysis used for DNA profiling
STR analysis
repetitive DNA: short tandem repeat (STR)
short tandem repeat (STR)
repetitive DNA
PCR is used to amplify DNA sequences
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
reactions
primers
DNA profiling provided evidence in forensic investigation
include
establish paternity
solve crimes
identify victims
Analysis of genetic markers produce DNA
DNA profiling
forensics
Gene Cloning and Editing
nucleic acid probes label DNA segments
nucleic acid probe
nucleic acids
reverse transcriptase help gene cloning
complementary DNA (cDNA)
reverse transcriptase
enzymes- cut and paste DNA
restriction site
restriction fragments
restriction enzyme
DNA ligase
gene edited by new technology
technology and biotechnology
genes cloned in recombinant plasmids
DNA cloning
vector
plasmid
clone
genetic engineering
gene cloning
Recombinant DNA
DNA ligase
DNA technology
bacterial plasmids (vector) w/ recombinant DNA
biotechnology
Genomics and Bioinformatics
Chapter 10: Molecular Biology of the Gene
DNA Replication
DNA replication depends on specific base printing
semiconservative model
DNA replication proceeds in two directions at many sites simultaneously
DNA polymerase
DNA ligase
The Flow of Genetic Information from DNA to RNA to Protein
Transfer RNA molecules serve as interpreters during translation
anticodon
transfer RNA (tRNA)
Ribosomes build polypeptides
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
ribosome
ribosomes are part of cell and they build polypeptides, used for both chapters
Eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving the nucleus as mRNA
exons
RNA splicing
intron
messenger RNA (mRNA)
An initiation codon marks the start of an mRNA message
start codon
Transcription produces genetic messages in the form of RNA
promoter
terminator
RNA polymerase
RNA
Mutations can affects genes
missense mutation
nonsense mutations
silent mutation
frameshift mutation
mutation
down syndrome is a mutation in the genes kind of
mutagen
mutation
The genetic code dictates how codons are translated into amino acids
genetic code
Elongation adds amino acids to the polypeptide chain until a stop codon terminates translation
stop codon
genetic information written in codons is translated into amino acids sequences
triplet code
codon
The flow of genetic information in the cell is DNA-->RNA--> protein
Genes control phenotypic traits through the expression of proteins
translation
transcription
The Structure of the Genetic Material
DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides
sugar-phosphate backbone
RNA
Uracil (U)
polynucleotide
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Cytosine (C)
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Guanine (G)
nucleotide
DNA is a double-stranded helix
double helix
Experiments showed that DNA is the genetic material
Bacteriophage
phage
The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria
Prions are infectious proteins.
prion
Bacteria can transfer DNA in three ways.
conjugation
transformation
transduction
The AIDS virus makes DNA on an RNA template
reverse transcriptase
retrovirus
Bacterial plasmids can serve as carriers for gene transfer.
F factor
plasmid
R plasmid
gene
Can be passed down from generation- like HIV or AIDS
Emerging viruses threaten human health
HIV
AIDS
emerging viruses
Viral DNA may become part of the host chromosome
lytic cycle
lysogenic cycle
capsid
prophage
virus
COVID
Exam 3
Chapter 8: The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance
The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis
Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant
cancer
malignant
metastasis
tumor
benign tumor
growth factors signal the cells cycle control system
cell cycle control system
Cell Division changes
mitotic spindle
centrosome
rate of cell division affected by environmental factors
anchorage dependence
growth factors
protein
density dependent inhibition
where crowded cells stop growing
Cytokinesis: plant and animal cells
cell cycle has growth and division phases
mitosis
interphase
prophase
G1
prometaphase
G2
metaphase
S
anaphase
mitotic phase (M phase)
interval of cell cycle
cell cycle
telophase and cytokinesis
cleavage furrow
cell plate
vesicles fuse forming this disk
cleavage
animal cells use this
eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division
sister chromatids
two copies
centromere
sister chromatids attached
chromatin
helps proteins maintain structure of chromosome
cell cycle
eukaryotes
The best cancer treatment may vary by individual
Meiosis and Crossing Over
Mitosis and meiosis have important similarities and differences
Gametes have a single set of chromosomes
fertilization
zygote
haploid
diploid
gametes
life cycle
Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied offspring.
Homologous chromosomes may carry different versions of genes
Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs
autosome
sex chromosome
somatic cells
locus, loci
homologous chromosomes
Crossing over further increases genetic variability
recombinant chromosomes
Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid: meiosis
Telophase I and Cytokinesis
Prophase II
anaphase I
Metaphase II
metapahse I
Anaphase II
prophase I
crossing over
Telophase II and Cytokinesis
interphase
chromosomes
Cell Division and Reproduction
Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission
binary fission
cell division, dividing in half
Cell Division plays important roles in lives of organisms
chromosome
structure contains genetic DNA of cell
DNA-
Asexual reproduction
creation of genetically identical offspring by one parent
sexual reproduction
requires fusion of gamete, egg and sperm
cell division
reproduction, two daughter cells result in genetically identical
reproduction- cloning- mutations, and other gene stuff
Alterations of Chromosome Number and Structure
Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes do not usually affect survival
New species can arise from errors in cell division
Accidents during meiosis can alter chromosome number
nondisjunction
A karyotype is a photographic inventory of an individual’s chromosomes
karyoptype
Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects and cancer
translocation
duplication
deletion
inversion
cancer can be caused
An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes Down syndrome
downs syndrome
trisomy 21
Chapter 9: Patterns of Inheritance
Variations on Mendel’s Laws
A single gene may affect many phenotypic characters
sickle-cell disease
pleiotropy
A single character may be influenced by many genes
polygenic inheritance
many disease - diabetes, heart disease and cancer
The environment affects many characters
Many genes have more than two alleles that may be codominant
ABO blood groups
codominant
Incomplete dominance results in intermediate phenotypes
humans
The Chromosomal Basis
of Inheritance
Chromosome behavior accounts for Mendel’s laws.
chromosome theory of inheritance
Geneticists use crossover data to map genes
linkage map.
genetic map
Crossing over produces new combinations of alleles
recombination frequency
wild-type
mutant
Genes on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together
linked genes
genes are related
Mendel's Laws
The law of independent assortment is revealed by tracking two characters at once
law of independent assortment.
monohybrid cross
dihybrid cross
Genetic traits in humans can be tracked through family pedigrees
pedigree
male and female
egg and sperm
reproduction
normal or mutation sometimes happens
1 more item...
Homologous chromosomes bear the alleles for each character
locus (loci)
Many inherited traits in humans are controlled by a single gene
disease
carrier
autosome
huntington's disease
disease
disease
gene
healed with therapy
Mendel’s law of segregation describes inheritance of single character
dominant allele
alleles
heterozygous
recessive allele
homozygous
law of segregation
genotype
phenotype
New technologies can provide insight into one’s genetic legacy
chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
ultrasound imaging
technology
technology is important in biology
amniocentesis
complete dominance
incomplete dominance
Geneticists can use a testcross to determine unknown genotypes
testcross
Mendel’s laws reflect the rules of probability
rule of addition
rule of multiplication
The study of genetics has ancient roots
pea plant
The science of genetics began in an abbey garden
hybrid
P generation
true-breeding
F1 generation
genetics
F2 generation
heredity
cross
genetic cross
laws by mendel
laws
Sex Chromosomes and Sex-Linked Genes
The Y chromosome provides clues about human male evolution
Human sex-linked disorders affect mostly males
Sex-linked genes exhibit a unique pattern of inheritance
sex-linked gene
x-linked genes
Chromosomes determine sex in many species
sex chromosomes
Chapter 7: Photosynthesis: Using Light to Make Food
The Light Reactions: Converting Solar Energy
to Chemical Energy
2 photosystems connected by electrons transport chain--> light energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH
leads to production of ATP and NADPH
light reactions in thylakoid membranes
photophosphorylation
chemiosmotic production of ATP
Photosystems capture solar energy
photosystem
has 2 reactions complex
reaction-center complexes
light-harvesting complexes
Visible radiation drives the light reaction
electromagnetic spectrum
range of gamma rays
wavelength
distance between electromagnetic wave crests
photon
fixed quantity of energy
The Calvin Cycle: Reducing CO2 to Sugar
Other methods of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, dry climates
C4 plants
first fix carbon into 4 carbon compound
photorespiration
2 carbon product is broken because of build up in leaf
C3 plants
first stable product is 3 carbon
CAM plants
process occur in same cell, different time of day
plants
ATP and NADPH power sugar synthesis in the Calvin cycle
An Introduction to Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis in 2 stages, linked by ATP + NADPH
NADP+
transfer electrons to receptor
carbon fixation
CO2 entering carbon cycle
calvin cycle
occurs in stroma, cyclic series of reactions
ATP and NADP+
ATP
Adenine Triphosphate
light reactions
occur in thylakoids
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration: redox process
Energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O --> C6H12O6 = 6H2O
redox process
cellular respiration
energy
Photosynthesis in chloroplasts- plant cells
chlorophyll
light absorbing pigment
mesophyll
green tissue inside leaf
stoma (stomata)
tiny pores
stroma
thick fluid
thylakoids
membrane sacs
arranged and needed in process of photosynthesis
photosynthesis
Scientists traced photosynthesis using isotopes
light energy+6CO2 +6H20 --> C6H12O6 + 6O2
CO2
H20
O2
Photosynthesis fuels biosphere
Autotrophs
make own food
heterotrophs
can't make own food
humans
photoautotrophs
use energy of light
photosynthesis
process that plants use
The Global Significance
of Photosynthesis
Rising atmospheric levels of CO2 affect plants
Reducing fossil fuel + deforestation moderate climate change
greenhouse effect
analogous process
climate change
ongoing global warming
Photosynthesis food and O2 for living organisms