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BIOLOGY 1st Term 1st EXAM TOPICS - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Milk and milk products; canned fish with bones (salmon, sardines); fortified tofu and fortified soy milk; greens (broccoli, mustard greens); legumes
      - Important for healthy bones and teeth; helps muscles relax and contract; important in nerve functioning, blood clotting, blood pressure regulation, immune system health
    - - Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, processed foods (including soda pop)
      - Important for healthy bones and teeth; found in every cell; part of the system that maintains acid-base balance
    - - Needed for proper fluid balance, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction
      - Meats, milk, fresh fruits and vegetables, whole grains, legumes
    - - Found in bones; needed for making protein, muscle contraction, nerve transmission, immune system health
      - Nuts and seeds; legumes; leafy, green vegetables; seafood; chocolate; artichokes; "hard" drinking water
    - - Table salt, soy sauce; large amounts in processed foods; small amounts in milk, meats, breads, and vegetables
      - Needed for proper fluid balance, stomach acid
    - - Found in protein molecules
      - Occurs in foods as part of protein: meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, legumes, nuts
    - - Needed for proper fluid balance, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction
      - Table salt, soy sauce; large amounts in processed foods; small amounts in milk, breads, vegetables, and unprocessed meats
    - - Meats, fish, poultry, leavened whole grains, vegetables
      - Part of many enzymes; needed for making protein and genetic material; has a function in taste perception, wound healing, normal fetal development, production of sperm, normal growth and sexual maturation, immune system health
    - - Organ meats; red meats; fish; poultry; shellfish (especially clams); egg yolks; legumes; dried fruits; dark, leafy greens; iron-enriched breads and cereals; and fortified cereals
      - Part of a molecule (hemoglobin) found in red blood cells that carries oxygen in the body; needed for energy metabolism
    - - Found in thyroid hormone, which helps regulate growth, development, and metabolism
      - Seafood, foods grown in iodine-rich soil, iodized salt, bread, dairy products
  - - - High specific heat capacity: water’s heat capacity, the amount of heat energy required to increase its temperature is relatively high.
      - High latent heat of vaporization: It takes a lot of heat to increase the temperature of liquid water, it also takes an unusual amount of heat to vaporize a given amount of water, because hydrogen bonds must be broken in order for the molecules to be released as gas. That is, water has a high heat of vaporization, the amount of energy needed to change one gram of a liquid substance to a gas at constant temperature.
    - - • For enzymes to work, at least %15 water content is needed in the environment.
      - • Water is a good solvent. This property helps digestion of food.
      - • Water plays a role in transportation of materials in blood.
      - • Plants take minerals dissolved in water by their roots.
      - • Water maintains homeostasis of body temperature by sweating, evaporation cools down the body.
      - • Water dilutes wastes of our body and helps excretion.
      - • Water is an input of photosynthesis.
      - • Water helps herbaceous plants to stand straight.
      - • Evaporation and condensation of water acts on climate.
      - • Specific heat capacity of water provides marine animals to survive in water.
- - - - The importance of lipids for living things:
        
        • Lipids are the secondary source of energy.
        
        • Lipids give twice as much energy when compared to carbohydrates or proteins
        
        • They can be stored in the body providing a long term storage of energy around of internal organs and under the skin.
        
        • Lipids provide flexibility to cell membrane and skin.
        
        • Lipids form an insulating layer against the temperature changes of surroundings. This is important for animals living in cold region.
        
        • The vitamins A, D, E, K are soluble in fats. So fats help our body to use these vitamins.
        
        • Many animals like camels use lipids as potential source of water as an adaptation. When lipids used in cellular respiration metabolic water is produced(more when compared to carbohydrates)
  - - - Monosaccharides
        
        The carbohydrate monomers (single-unit sugars) are monosaccharides. The general formula for monosaccharides is (CH2O) n. Carbohydrates are classified according to their number of carbon atoms in their molecules:
        
        • Pentose (5C): The monosaccharides having 5C in their structures. Examples: ribose-sugar in RNA and deoxyribose-sugar in DNA
        
        Hexose (6C): The monosaccharides having 6C in their structures. Examples: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose (all have same molecular formula, C6H12O6 but different structural formula, isomers).
        
        Glucose: A white crystalline solid found in honey and sweet fruits such as grapes. It is also produced by green plants during photosynthesis. It is the blood sugar for human, a healthy person has 70-100 mg glucose per 100 mL blood. All carbohydrates are converted to glucose
        before being utilized for energy production. Too much glucose
        consumption results in overweight or obesity, as glucose is converted to lipids to be stored in the body.
        
        Galactose: Does not exist freely but found in the structure of milk sugar (found in the lactose, milk sugar).
        
        Fructose: The sweetest monosaccharide which is found in nectar of flowers, honey, sweet ripe fruits.
      - Disaccharides
        
        • Disaccharides are compounds made by joining two simple sugars together.
        
        • Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides unite chemically by the elimination of a water molecule, disaccharides are formed. This kind of water producing reactions is called dehydration synthesis reactions. If (n) monosaccharides are the input, then (n-1) water molecules are formed.
        
        • Disaccharides can be broken down into monosaccharides with the addition of water. Such kind of reactions are called hydrolysis reactions, just the reverse of dehydration.
        
        • The bond that joins two monosaccharides is called a glycosidic bond. The number of bond forms is equal to the number of water molecules formed.
        
        • Disaccharides are less soluble in water and less sweet compared to monosaccharides.
        
        • Disaccharides cannot be directly used in cellular respiration or other cellular processes. They have to be first separated into monosaccharides during digestion.
        
        • The types of disaccharides are maltose, sucrose and lactose.
        
        Maltose: Maltose is a malt sugar, occurs in many seeds, it is a kind of barley sugar. Maltose is composed of two glucose sugars. Below is the dehydration synthesis reaction for the formation of maltose.
        
        Sucrose: Sucrose is table sugar (saccharose). Sucrose is composed of one fructose and one glucose sugars. The dehydration synthesis reaction of sucrose is shown below:
        
        Lactose: Lactose is milk sugar. Lactose is composed of one galactose and one glucose sugars. Disaccharides can be broken down into monosaccharides with the addition of water. Such kind of reactions are called hydrolysis reactions, just the reverse of dehydration.
      - Polysaccharides.
        
        The large macromolecules are formed from monosaccharides are known as polysaccharides. The general properties of polysaccharides: they are the least soluble in water compared to monosaccharides and disaccharides. In addition, they are the least sweet sugars of all sugars. All polysaccharides (polymer) are made up of glucose (monomer). Polymer is a molecule composed of many smaller, simpler units called monomers linked in long chains.
        
        Starch: Plants use a slightly different polysaccharide called starch, to store excess sugar. Photosynthesis is the chemical reaction that plants produce glucose, and plants do not store this carbohydrate in the form of glucose. Glucose molecules are united to form a more compact structure called starch, to be stored in roots, stems, leaves or seeds of plants. The indicator of starch is iodine, it changes its color from brown to dark blue if starch is present. Potatoes and grains, such as wheat, corn and rice are the major sources of starch in the human diet.
        
        Glycogen: Many animals store excess sugar in a polysaccharide called glycogen, which is sometimes called “animal starch”. Glycogen is stored in skeletal muscles and in liver. When the level of glucose in your blood runs low, glycogen is broken down into glucose, which is then released into the blood. The glycogen stored in your muscles supplies the energy for muscle contraction and, thus, for movement.
        
        Cellulose: Plants make another important polysaccharide called cellulose. Tough, flexible cellulose fibers give plants much of their strength and rigidity. Cellulose is the major component of both wood and paper, so you are actually looking at cellulose as you read these words! Most animals do not have enzymes that hydrolyze cellulose. Therefore, cellulose is not a nutrient for humans, although it does contribute to digestive system health. The cellulose that passes unchanged through your digestive tract is referred to as insoluble fiber. Fresh fruits, vegetables, and grains are rich in fiber.
        
        Chitin: Chitin is a polysaccharide made of sugars found in the cell wall structure of fungi. In addition, chitin is also found in external skeleton of insects, the hard case enclosing the animal. In addition to C, H and O, chitin has N in its structure. Humans use chitin to make a strong and flexible surgical thread that decomposes after a wound or incision heals. The presence of chitin is one of several features that show fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.