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Chapter 10, Chapter 11, Chapter 12, Mutations and virus, Cloning of plant…
Chapter 10
the function of transferring amino acids from the cytoplasm pool to a growing polypeptide in a ribosome is called transfer RNA (tRNA). The backbone of the tRNA twists and folds molecules and contains a special triplet of bases called anti codons. Special initiator tRNA base-pairs with the specific codon called start codon. The site where initial tRNA fits into tRNA is called P site.
Once initiation is complete, amino acids are added one by one to the growing chain. These steps are powered by GTP, which is a molecule that is related to ATP. This continues until stop codon reaches the ribosomes A site.
Viruses that only infect bacteria are called bacteriophages (phages for short) Hershey and Chase conducted an experiment where they grew T2 and E.coli in a solution with radioactive sulfur. As the new phages were made the radioactive sulfur atoms were incorporated only into the protien of the bacteriophages.
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A polynucleotide is a nucleotide polymer chain and each type of DNA nucleotide has a different nitrogen-containing base; Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G) or Thymine (T).
Nucleotides and arranged in a double helix and are joined to one another by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, this forms is sugar-phosphate backbone which has the repeating pattern of sugar-phosphate sugar-phosphate.
Thymine (T) and cytosine (C) are single-ring structures called pyrimidines while adenine (A) and guanine (G) and larger, double-ring structures called purines. RNA has a nitrogen base called uracil (U)
The model of DNA replication is called semi conservative model. The process of replicating DNA is very complex because it requires the coordination of more then a dozen enzymes and protiens.
The enzymes that link DNA nucleotides to a growing daughter strands are called DNA polymerases. Another enzyme is called DNA ligase, which link the pieces together into a single DNA strand.
The main stages of of gene expression are transcription which is the synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA and translation which is the synthesis of protien under the direction of RNA.
Triple code is the flow of information from gene to protien and the polypeptide chains are written in DNA and RNA as a series of nonoverlapping three base words called codons. The genetic code is the amino acid translation of each of the nucleotides triplets.
RNA that encodes amino acid sequences is called messenger RNA( mRNA)
most genes of plants and animals include introns and the part of the gene being expressed is exons. The cutting and pasting process is called RNA splicing.
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Transformation is the uptake of foreign DNA from the surrounding environment. The transfer of bacterial genes is called transduction . Conjunction is the union of two bacterial cells of the same or different species and the DNA transfer between them.
The F factor carries about 25 gene making sex pili and other requirements for the conjunction. The F factor can also exist as a plasmid which is a small circular DNA molecule separate from the bacterial chromosome. The plasmid of one class is called the R plasmids which pose serious problems for human medicine. The R plasmids carry genes for enzymes that destroy antibiotics.
Transcription is turned off because a protien called a repressor binds to the operator and physically blocks the attachment of RNA polymerase. Activators on the other hand are proteins that turn on by binding DNA and stimulating gene transcription.
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DNA technology rely on gel electrophoresis which is a method that separates macromolecules on the basis of size, electrical charge or other physical properties.
Chapter 11
Gene regulation is the turning on and off of genes, which helps organisms respond to environmental changes.
The overall process of genetic information flows from gene to protien (genotype to phenotype) is called gene expression
Promoter is the site where the transcription enzymes, RNA polymerase attaches and initiates transcription.
A DNA control sequence is called an operator. The operator determines whether RNA polymerase can attach to the pro motor and start transcribing the gene. Also the entire stretch of DNA required for insulin production is called an operon.
During the repeated cell division that lead from a zygote to an adult in a multicellular organism, individual cells must go through differentiation.
On the DNA double helix each bead is called it nucleosome which consists of DNA wound twice around a protein core of eat histone molecules.
inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence is called epigenetic inheritance. Mutations in the DNA a permanent changes but modifications to the chromatin can be reversed by processed or not yet fully understood by scientists
The X chromosome inactivation is initiated early and embryonic development, when one of the two X chromosomes in each cell is an activated at random. Then inactive X in each cell of a female continents into compact object called a barr body.
To function properly, eukaryotic RNA polymerase required assistance of proteins called transcription factors. The first step in gene transcription is binding of activator proteins to DNA control sequences called enhancers, enhancers are located far away on the chromosome from the gene they help regulate. Once the DNA is bent the bound activators interact with other transcription factor proteins
With alternative RNA splicing an organism can produce more then one type of polypeptide from a single gene
Enzymes in the cytoplasm breakdown molecules of mRNA, the timing of this event is an important factor regulating the amount of various proteins that are produced in the cell long lived mRNA can be translated into many more proteins molecules then short-lived ones
microRNAs(miRNA) can bind to complementary sequences on mRNA molecules. Small interfering RNAs (siRNAa) are similar to miRNAs, but they have an RNA interference (RNAi)
A homoeotic gene is a master control gene that regulates groups of other genes that determine the anatomy of parts of the body
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A DNA microarray consist of tube amounts of large number of different single-stranded DNA fragments. The DBA microarray can be loaded with all the mRNAs made in a cell .
A signal transduction pathway is a series of molecular changes that convert a signal on a target cells surface to a specific response inside the cell.
Genomics, is the study of complete sets of jeans.
The human genome project(HGP) was a massive publicly funded scientific endeavor to determine the nucleotide sequence of all DNA in the human genome and identify the location sequence of every gene
Chapter 12
Biotechnology is the manipulation of organisms or their components to make useful products. Which in today’s world is referred to as DNA technology. Recombinant DNA is formed when scientists combine pieces of DNA from two different sources.
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There are two kinds of DNA isolated first the bacterial plasmid that wolf serve as the vector. Also the DNA from another organism that includes the gene that codes for protein V (gene V) . The scientist will treat the plasmid in the gene V source DNA with an enzyme that cuts DNA. The source DNA, which is usually much longer in sequence than the plasmid maybe cut into many fragments. Then the cut DNA from both sources are mixed, the ends of DNA ligase joins the two DNA molecules by way of covalent bonds. The recombinant bacterium then reproduces through repeated itself cycle to form a clone of cells, when DNA cloning involves a gene carrying segment of DNA it is called gene cloning.
Nucleic acid probe is used to find a specific gene or other nucleotide sequences within a mass of DNA.
Complimentary DNA (cDNA) represents only the sub set of jeans that had been transcribed into mRNA in the starting of cells.
To prevent diseases vaccines are made. Vaccines are harmless variant (mutant) or derivative of a pathogen( usually a bacterium or virus)
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are organisms that have required one or more gene by artificial means. If a gene is transplanted from one organism to another, typically of another species, the recombinant organisms called a transgenic organism
Gene therapy are alterations of a diseased individuals gene for therapeutic purposes. For gene therapy to be permanent to normal allele would have to be transferred to solve some multiply throughout a persons life.
Modern DNA technology methods have rapidly transformed the field of forensics, the scientific analysis of evidence for crime scene investigation and other legal proceedings. DNA profiling is analysis of DNA samples to determine whether they came from the same individual is one of the most important applications in forensic.
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique by which a specific segment of a DNA molecule can be targeted and quickly amplified in the laboratory. The key to amplify one particular segment of DNA is the use of primers which are chemically synthesize single-stranded DNA molecules with sequences that are complementary to sequences at each end of the target sequence
Repetitive DNA consist of nucleotide sequences that are present in multiple copies in the genome, much of the DNA the lies between genes and humans is of this type. Short tandem repeat(STR) is when The repetitive DNA used in DNA profiles consist of short sequences repeated many times in a row. STR analysis is a method of DNA profiling the compares the lengths of STR sequences at specific sites in the genome
The whole-genome shotgun method starts with the cloning and sequencing of DNA fragments from randomly cut DNA derived from the entire genome.
Bioinformatics is the application of computational methods to the storage and analysis biological data
Mutations and virus
When a change occurs to the genetic information of a cell this is called a mutation. There are many forms of a mutation which include a silent mutation, nonsense mutation and frame shirt mutation.
A silent mutation is a change in in the sequence of nucleotide bases but not the amino acid of the overall function.
A missense mutation changes one amino acid to another
nonsense mutation changes an amino acid codon into a stop codon
Framshift mutation occurs when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three.
Mutations can happen from errors during DNA replication or combination this is called spontaneous mutations. Another mutation caused by physical or chemical agents are called mutagens.
A virus is an infectious particle consisting of little more then genes in a box or nucleic acid wrapped in a protien coat called capsid.
Lyric cycle results in the lysis of the shot cell and the realse of it produces viruses. During a lysogenic cycle, viral DNA replication occurs without destroying the host cell.
Emerging viruses are ones that seem to burst onto the scene, becoming apparent to the medical community quite suddenly. An example of this is HIV which is the virus that causes AIDS.HIV is an RNA virus that resembles the flu and has different mode of replication. It is a retrovirus, an RNA virus that reproduces by DNA molecules. The virus carry reverse transcriptase, which catalyze reverse transcriptions.
An oncogene can cause cancer when present in a single copy in the cell . Porto-oncegen is a normal cellular green that has the potential of becoming an oncege.
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